Ethics

This paper is a reflection on the scenario where passengers are left stranded in the airports. It will critically evaluate the situation from an ethical viewpoint. Certain basic principles of ethics will be incorporated, for instance, ethical theories, human acts, and the meaning of duty and responsibility.

Recent case studies will be considered. The eruption of the volcano led to a vast cancellation of many flights in many parts of the world. Kantian theory on the categorical imperatives, deontologism, utilitarianism and prima facie duties will be considered. The aim is to underscore that most of these inconveniences inhere or derive from certain human actions, like in the case where the management deliberately interferes with the flight schedule or an engineer who disconnects the engine of a plane two hours before the plane takes off.

Introduction
In one way or another, every one has experienced being inconvenienced due to some reasons. Normally, this happens when others fail to do their duty, like in the case where passengers are left stranded in the airport and yet they need to travel for some fundamental reasons in their lives.  While it is true that sometimes people do not intend to let others down, things happen due to some unavoidable circumstances, for instance, technical failure or acts of God. On the contrary, people can deliberately fail to honor their duties toward other people. This therefore, becomes very unjust and unfair. This study will reflect on the ethical implications of a case where passengers get inconvenienced in the airport hence creating anxiety and anger in them. Indeed, the study will explore certain ethical ideologies as follows duty, ethical theories, morality of human acts, and professional code of ethics in relation to aircraft industries. Several analogical examples will also be considered to shed more light on this important topic, for instance, waiter-customer, pastor-Christian, teacher-student, doctor-patient and taxi driver-passenger.

Ethical Theories
A categorical imperative is an unconditional and generally acceptable moral duty (Lara et al., 2007). According to Kant, one ought to act in a manner which can be adopted in the universal order. In this regard, one s choice of actions in a given situation should point to what can be universally acceptable and applicable. This maxim can have different interpretations but the core thing is that the action undertaken should be universally permissible. In Christianity, it can relate to the dictum that holds that one ought to do to others what one would like them do to himher. Therefore, all rational beings with goodwill acts in accordance with the categorical imperative and further evaluate their actions to ensure that they are universally fitting.

Arguing from the Kantian point of view, it can be said that one ought to act in a manner that is not only harmful to himher but also to others. For example, it is not fair for passengers to be left stranded in the airport when one of the engineers of the airport deliberately interferes with plane s engine after failing to receive his dues. It is no doubt that this engineer would not wish another engineer to disable a plane bound to take off whenever she is intending to travel. Therefore, why not reflect on the needs of others by first understanding the importance of those needs from one s experience.

It is important to note that a categorical imperative is different from a hypothetical imperative. The difference is as follows  a categorical imperative implies a command while on the other hand a hypothetical imperative is a preconditioned command. For example, one can argue that if one wants to be happy then she must be a virtuous person. In a hypothetical imperative, one is not absolutely obliged such that it only depends on this or that. Kant categorically asserts that moral imperatives are not conditioned to anything as they serve as ends in themselves. Consider the following example it is good for the airport owners to speak the truth always no matter what the case when there is a problem in the flight schedule or it is good to help stranded passengers at the airport in all ways and by all means. In these examples, it can be argued that one is obliged to speak the truth always and that it is a duty to help the stranded passengers regardless whether it is a personal interest or wish or desire. One s duty is one s duty and one must do it whether she wants or not. Indeed, this is the nature of morality. On the contrary, in the case of a hypothetical imperative, one would argue that it is good for the airport owners to speak the truth. For example, one would say that it is good for the airport owners to speak the truth if asked to or it is good to help the stranded passengers, especially, the young children and elderly travelers if the airport management has the means to do so.

Hypothetical imperatives are not collective or absolute or universal because they are as such conditioned on some objective or aspiration. However, there are criticisms in respect to the categorical imperative in that not all acts can be universally acceptable. This is true considering the era of ethical relativism where people have different opinions and suggestions. Once again, consider the following examples Mr. X is convinced that he can interfere with the flight schedule when he wants to. This is not tenable in the Kantian sense. This course of action lacks universal desirability as doing this in itself is not something that can be desired in the universal order. Still, one would not still plane s engine simply because there are many engines in the company to replace it or because the act will not cause inconveniences in the flights of other passengers. One should not justify the act simply because it lacks grave consequences but as such, because stealing is morally unjustified and it is a duty to keep away from such act.

Deontological moral theory is contrary to consequentialist moral theory. While consequentialists believe that the end always justify the means, deontologists assert that the rightness of an action is not simply dependent on maximizing the good if that action goes against what is considered moral. The act in itself reflects whether it is morally good or morally wrong.

Deontologism is a moral theory whose tenets are of a non-consequentialist nature. It never believes that the end justifies the means. Contrary to what utilinitarianism believe that one should always exploit the good in hisher actions in the deontological sense, it is not the pursuit of the good that counts, but what one should consider is the moral element in the act. It is the act in itself that counts for a deontologist and not the end of it. This is what justifies it as moral or immoral. For instance, one of the managers in the airport company may decide to interfere with the schedule of other airports by hiring all their pilots on grounds of good wages. His motive is that he can make more money on December holidays by drawing more travelers to his services. This shows that he is out to achieve some good in terms of more profits. Therefore, she does not care whether the passengers will be stranded as long as she makes some good money.

A prima facie duty is a duty an individual has if all factors connected to it remain constant. This is because such duties are never absolute but fluctuating. On the contrary, a non-prima facie duty compels an individual to act in a manner that is not absolute. An action is a prima facie duty only if it holds moral quality features and the actions executed must prove to have been the only action possible at that time (Ross, 1930). He further asserts that there are no absolute standards or universal principles in morality. He further asserts that there are duties that are clear to one s intuition. These duties are keeping promises, correction of a wrong doing, expressing gratitude, acts of justice, benevolent inclinations, personal growth and development and keeping off the possibility of harming others. Therefore, acts of agreement like the scheduling of flights or the timings and commitment to promises made, for instance, punctuality of all flight schedules, are prima facie duties. In other words, commitment to an agreement made or fulfillment of a promise is simply some thing that individuals should maintain without difficulties.

Duty is something one is entitled to do by moral or legal obligation. It is an obligatory initiative conferred to a person towards something that is morally or legally right. Therefore, the duty becomes a moral or legal obligation. It is an action or responsibility expected from a person s position or occupation. Here, one can think of the duties of a parent towards a child or the duties of a pilot or airport management towards the passengers just to mention a few. It also encompasses acts or expressions of respect, and obedience. The airport companies have an obligation to their clients. The most important thing is that they ensure that they offer quality services that will make all passengers feel respected.

Human Acts
As mentioned earlier, the aim of this study is to morally analyze the moral implication of a case where people are left stranded at the airport. Now, this problem revolves around good and evil. In the common parlance, people will say that it is not good to keep them waiting like that. They even express a lot of anger in their grievances. Its one and only basis is human actions by the management. It is important to note that human actions can be good, bad or indifferent. This will depend on the connection of the act having moral fullness required by the object of the actions. Again, an act can be termed as good if it conforms to the tenets of right reason on the contrary, an act can be termed as bad if it violates the principles of right reason (Dizon, 2010).  He argues further that an act is indifferent if it has no positive connection to the fundamental principles of right reason.

For an action to qualify as a human act, it must be subject to the dictates of intellect and will. This is what makes them different from acts of man which do not require use of intellect and free will. Such acts are as follows unconscious acts, involuntary acts, semi-deliberate acts, like when one is sleeping, and spontaneous acts.

There fundamental components of the human acts, namely knowledge and deliberation, freedom in that one should not be coerced from outside and voluntariness. In fact, voluntary acts derive from the free will where the actor is somehow cognizant of the end. Free acts are, by and large, voluntary acts where the actor consciously chooses the end. Please note that not all voluntary acts are free although free acts are voluntary. In a broader ethical viewpoint, voluntary acts can be split further. For instance, free and necessary acts involve those acts that the individual cannot fail to do, for instance, thinking about God or taking initiatives for survival like eating or drinking or responding to a call of nature. Acts are perfect if executed in full knowledge and in full consent otherwise the contrary makes them imperfect.  Last but not least, a direct act is that which is willed as an end itself while an indirect act is that which is desired not as an end in itself but as a foreseen effect of act. This wisdom helps in distinguishing when airport managers are to blame for inconveniences caused and when they cannot be blamed. In other words, by understanding the nature of human acts, one will respond fairly in situations like having been stranded in the airport.

In general, the principal of integral cause stipulates that for an act to qualify as morally good it must be good in itself the intention and motive must be good and the circumstances must also be favorable. There are certain modifiers of human acts, for instance, ignorance of the actor, passion and concupiscence among others.

Air Craft Stranded Passengers
Having looked at some fundamental ethical principles above, it is now important to apply them to a situation where passengers are left stranded on aircraft for hours. Before that, it would be worthwhile to consider the following examples.

A restaurant owner opens hisher shop every day where most people prefer to have their breakfast. It happens that one day the owner fails to open the restaurant hence making hisher everyday customers to go without breakfast for that day. They feel very disappointed because their schedule has been disorganized. Some of the customers even call the owner through the phone and scold himher. They discover that the owner of the restaurant is still held up in a traffic jam.

Christians attend their Sunday service as usual in a church located at Kansas. They start doing their worship as they wait for their pastor. It is now two hours and the pastor has not come. Christians wait and wait and wait. They decide to administer for themselves while others rush to catch on a Sunday service else where. They decide to look for their pastor and realize that heshe cannot come because heshe had to rush hisher wife to the hospital due to some emergency illness.

During a math lesson, students in a school in California wait for their tutor. It is now thirty minutes and the tutor has not come. The students, through their class prefect, decide to find out what the reasons could be. They realize that the tutor is in the staffroom with other teachers chatting.
A patient attends her normal and regular appointment with her doctor. It happens that the patient has to go back home unattended because the doctor got too busy. After shehe found out what the problem could be, shehe discovered that the doctor was held up in a very important management meeting.
The following examples are meant to broaden one s mind in the reflection of inconveniences at the airport to passengers. Please note the structure of each example there is an element of someone getting disappointed, inconvenienced, and unattended just to mention a few. Again, there is a violation of duty there is a human action there is a motive there is a reason behind it and there are consequences.

It was noted that hundreds of passengers were stranded at Kennedy Airport as they waited for the volcanic ash cloud over Europe to clear and flights to resume normal duty. The figures below show passengers queue and wait at the airport of Prat Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain on 18 April 2010. All flights had been grounded as a result of a plume of volcanic ash emanating from a volcanic eruption.

Figure1 Source (Manu, 2010)

Figure 2 Source (Arturo, 2010)

Figure 3 Source (Swissinfo, 2010) - a picture of the volcanic eruption that caused the many cancellation of flights in most parts of the world

It was noted that in Vizag Airport, passengers were left stranded for 24 hours after the plane developed a technical snag. It was a reported engine failure which made the plane return to Vizag Airport (Ani, 2009). At Tambo International Airport, stranded passengers were requested to leave the airport or they risk being arrested. This was an order form the management. The passengers grew angry when they learnt that there were still no flights (Schie, 2010).

In Switzerland, frustrated passengers continued to be stranded following the flight ban which had been lifted in due course. The airport management reported that it would take a couple of days for services to return to normal. The on-going cancellation of most flights proved a source of irritation to most travelers. Thousands of Swiss citizens had been trapped abroad with their holidays extended unexpectedly. One of the passengers shared his views as follows  Got my confirmations two days that have past, indicating that my flight was to take off today I find out that my flight has been cancelled and no idea when I can take the flight. I am mad and disappointed.  He said further,  when I call the airport, I am asked to check the website when I go to the website, it shows that I am supposed to call the airline. I get only run a rounds  (Muller, 2010).

As can be seen, there are reasons given as to why the delays in flights are experienced. Like in the case where by passengers were stranded due to the volcanic eruption, this was beyond the managements control. It was a disaster that it could not avoid as such and indeed, appropriate measures had to be taken to safeguard against possible dangers. Truly, the cancellation of flights was for the good of all. Therefore, even if the passengers were inconvenienced, it still remains a justified case.

There are other instances when the management may cancel certain flights due to its own disputes. It could be a financial dispute that leads the executive arm to interrupt with the normal running of the flight schedule. Such a case is culpable and an offence in law. The state should take a very serious legal action against the management and compensate the stranded passengers hundred percent.
Sometimes flight can fail to take off due to a mechanical failure like in the case of Vizag mentioned above. Once again, the mechanical failure is beyond the control of the management or even the pilot and the entire cabin crew. In general, the issue of inconveniences caused at the airport should be looked at very prudently and fairly basing every thing on the rationales behind it. Passengers should be reasonable enough to put up with the situation especially if the problem is beyond management s control. On the other hand, their complaints are valid if the management deliberately interferes with the flight schedule.

Conclusion
 We have looked at fundamental principles of ethics in a bid to morally justify or critic the scenario of passengers being stranded at the airport. Sometimes, the travelling passengers succumb to terrible disappointments and frustrations and express genuine grievances. On the contrary, although the passengers are disappointed, their anger and frustrations cannot be blamed on the management. Therefore, it is either the management is to blame in such instances or they are not to be blamed. These two elements need to be evaluated every time passengers get involved in such murky and unpleasant situations at the airport. They should be considerate enough to distinguish between those causes that are beyond human control and those that are within human control.

I believe that the case of the volcanic eruption was beyond any body, not even those best and powerful airport companies. I believe that the passengers ought to have put up with the situation. However, the contrary is not acceptable. This is why governments need to come up with strict, open-ended policies that take into account all possible situations. The policies should protect the owners of airports against unwarranted accusations form the public on the other hand, they should protect the interests of the passengers against arbitrary manipulation of flight schedule by the airports owners.

Background Information
Wal-Mart is a large retail company that runs superstores and warehouses in several different countries. Its head quarters are in the United States but it has established joint ventures and subsidiaries in foreign countries. Wal Mart was founded by Sam Walton, a renowned businessperson form Arkansan in 1961. Initially, the company adopted a pricing strategy that kept its prices down while maintaining quality of products making it highly competitive. The retail company was first listed in the New York stock exchange in 1970 as a public company. Nevertheless, Wal Marts exemplary business performance and global presence, the company is facing huge challenges in its business operations. Of major concern are the unethical business practices. The company is accused of unfair treatment of employee, vendors and manufacturers.

Wal-Mart is struggling with several challenges in keeping its business operations compliance to expected ethical standards.  The companys business environment is diverse and complex resulting into challenges in employee management, compliance to regulatory standards and legal and ethical complications. These issues have tarnished the companys public image.

Employee management is a critical issue that determines organizational business performance. However, it has emerged that Wal Mart has not put in place strategies to strengthen its employee management. Critics accuse the company of poor workplace practices. The company has been accused of poor employee management tactics. Recently, several interest groups accused the company of firing a senior marketing executive allegedly for violating the companys code of ethics.

Wal-Mart has had numerous challenges with criticism form labor unions, religious groups and environmental agencies voicing their concerns over its unethical conduct. There are allegations that Wal-Mart engages in gender discrimination practices. There has been substantial evidence that Wal Mart practices sex impartiality when dealing with its employees, with some people claiming that female employees do not get equal payments or promotional opportunities compared to their male counterparts. This gender discrimination has led to lawsuits that have cost the company a lot of many and  negative publicity.

Statement of Purpose
This report seeks to evaluate application and enforcement of equal employment and anti-sex discrimination laws with specific reference to the ethical issues that have negatively impacted on Wal-Mart. U.S.  this report  objectively analyses the various powers and roles of  the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC),  the agency  charged with the responsibility of ensuring fair play in work places.  Specifically, the Act that created the agency, that is, Section VII, outlaws any form of sex  gender based discrimination.  The law deals with such issues as seeking sexual favors in work place, failure to ensure that an organization has put in place measures to deal with sex discrimination as well as sex-based harassments. Further, the agency handles pregnancy based discrimination that a mother or expectant women may be exposed to because of her condition.

Scope
The reports scope will entail the general overview  of U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)  and how it enforce equal employment laws.  The areas to be covered include the positive changes that have been experienced in  the labor market since  the creation  of  the EEOC, as well as  the events  that led to the development  of the law. Additionally, the report will look at the specific sexgender discriminations issues and challenges that have been experienced by the Wal-Mart. The cases to be looked at include Dukes v. Wal-Mart as well as the E EOC v. Wal-Mart. The report will thus detail the ways in which EEOC has cracked the whip in exercise of its powers to deal with the errant corporate bodies.  Also, the report will look at the ethical issues that have emerged from Wal-Marts sex discriminative practices and how these issues have affected the corporation. However, the report will be limited to Wal-Marts gender discrimination cases in the US, and not the general corporate sex based scandals.

Preliminary Outline

I. Introduction
A. Background of the Study
B. Statement of Purpose
C. Scope of the Study
D. Limitations of the Study
E. Methods of Research

II. Findings
A.   Creation of Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
B. Background to the Agency
Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII)
Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967 )
Age Discrimination in Employment Amendments Act (2008)
C. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission expectations from corporations
D. Wal-Mart failures to adhere to EEOCs age discriminations requirements
E. The impacts and ethical issues of Wal-Marts sex based discriminations
F. Suits against  Wal-Mart in pursuit  of the  Age Discrimination in Employment Amendments Act
EEOC v. Wal-Mart Act
Dukes v. Wal-Mart

III. Conclusions and Recommendations
A. Conclusions
B. Recommendations

Most of the American citizens today are not aware of the stories pertaining to the Indian boarding schools, institutions which have started their operations on the first day of November 1878 upon the opening of the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania by Captain Richard H. Pratt (Keoke  Porterfield, 2003). These institutions were founded in order to transform Native Americans from their tribal and uncivilized ways (De Leeuw, 2007) to the modern and educated European culture (Keoke  Porterfield, 2003). At first glance, it may appear that the aforementioned goal is of pure political nature that the government has executed in order to solve the problem with the Indians during that time (Bear, 2008). However, a critical analysis of the issue will reveal that the Native American boarding schools are places which have catered to activities that have brought physical, psychological, and ethical abuse to the students (Bear, 2008). In connection to this, the basis for the selection of this topic is based on the notion that the modern American citizens must be knowledgeable of the nature and dimension of the boarding schools in order to gain sensitivity to the issues and apply the lessons of the past in the evaluation of present national concerns. Furthermore, it is believed that the analysis of the Native American boarding schools will help readers in the analysis of their personal culture competency. Hence, the approval of this essay topic is of considerable significance to the modern American culture with respect to the study of ethics and social implications.

Captain Pratt, the founder of Native American boarding schools or Indian boarding schools popularized the following phrase kill the Indian, not the man or in other variations, kill the Indian, save the man (Keoke  Porterfield, 2003, n. p.). This phrase was actually the goal in the foundation of boarding schools because the American government during that time wanted to achieve a renewed and transformed form of the Native Americans in order to make them less likely to engage in rebellions and other military engagements against the US government (Keoke  Porterfield, 2003).

Moreover, fulfillment of the said goal was also in accordance to the colonialism concerns of the US government and this is based on the fact that material and geographical features of the boarding schools were directly maximized in order to impose improved colonial projects for the Native Americans (De Leeuw, 2007). These projects are characterized in the examination of the students as individual subjects in the context of the multiplicity and plurality of the colonial aspects (De Leeuw, 2007).

The utilization of boarding schools was the sole and most effective method that the government officials considered for the transformation of the Native Americans and such kind of process involved the usage of various brainwashing techniques (Keoke  Porterfield, 2003). Characterizations of these techniques include the establishment of boarding schools away from the home settlements of the Indian families, enforcement of the students to wear military uniforms while inside the schools premises, prevention of students to speak in their native language, separation of siblings from each other in the boarding schools and ensuring that they will never get the chance to connect with the other, instilling in the minds of the students that their traditional way of life is inferior, and in worst cases, instructing them that their old manners of are savage and are of demonic origin, and, the instruction of students with manual skills like cooking for girls and carpentry for boys (Keoke  Porterfield, 2003). Aside from these events, the students of the Native American boarding schools were also physically transformed as illustrated in their before and after photographs which clearly depict the physical alteration of the features of the students from having long hair, native clothing and dark skin to the acquisition of European-inspired physical features (De Leeuw, 2007).

Consequently, it can be seen from the abovementioned evidences that the Native American boarding schools rendered traumatic experiences to the participants (Bear, 2008). If students nowadays will attain additional knowledge on the concrete features of the boarding schools then they will be more likely to appreciate the things that they enjoy today and to be able to assess their personal competency in the socio-cultural heritage of their community. Hence, the approval of this essay topic is essential in the achievement of additional and up-to-date knowledge of the lessons of the past especially if it involves the analysis of the Native Americans, a portion of the American population which has greatly participated in making the USA achieve the international status that it posses today.

1. What is the Principle of the Equal Consideration of Interests Whatare the reasons for believing it to be true What are the moralimplications and limitations of accepting its truth

The principle of equal consideration of interests was a concept by Peter Singer which implies that an interest, despite whose it is, is still an interest. This means that when one is determining whether an action is right, he should take into account the effect that such an action will have on all the affected parties. It is a moral principle takes into consideration a persons interests rather than his individual rights. It opposes those other theories that fail to include interest in calculating the moral rightness of an action.

Peter Singer in his principle gave two examples. Firstly, if there was an earthquake and two people were injured, the first victim slightly and the second severely injured. And if the medication available was enough to either relieve the second victims pain completely or be shared equally among the two. If shared between the two, it would be of little impact on the second victim. This principle suggests that the medication be given to the more injured party. Equality of treatment in this case would be unfair.

In another example, if X has lost a leg and is almost losing a toe and Y is about to lose his leg, and the medical supplies available can either save Xs toe or Ys leg. If X is given the medication losses a leg .This would leave both of them without a leg. According to the principle of equal consideration of interest, equality of outcome which would occur would be unfair.

According to this principle, all animals as well as human beings are equal. Singer likened speciesm to sexism and racism which are wrong. Viewing one species of animals as more important than is like being a racist. Unfortunately, human beings treat some animals as more superior to others and therefore neglect the rights of such other inferior ones. For instance, man can kill a mosquito and suffer no guilt if he accidentally runs a dog over he is affected by his action for a long period of time.
The principle of equal consideration is true because no one should be treated differently on basis of race, sex or any other form of classification.

In cases where animals are used for experiments, the principle of equal consideration is not true because it lessens suffering of human being from different diseases.
The moral implication of accepting this principle as true will be that animal will be treated the same way as human beings. They will be given rights such as right to life.

No actions will be taken deliberately that would cause pain to animals and so they will not be used for food.

The shortcomings of accepting this principle as true are many and it is not applicable in practical sense. By accepting it as true, there will be a lot of human suffering because no animals will be used for scientific experiments. Diseases will kill humanity. They will also die from malnutrition and lack of proteins in the diet.

Animals cannot be treated as equal to human beings because they cannot be given all rights that human beings possess. For instance, the right to vote cannot be given to a cow. Another limitation lies in the fact that animals do not have a moral conscience and they cannot be held responsible for their actions. They cannot be judged or punished in an attempt to correct their actions. Rights are granted according to moral status and animals lack that moral status.

Singer argues that confining animals in the zoo is infringing on their rights but can you imagine what would happen if we were let to live together with such animals as lions The outcome would be disastrous with people dying daily.

During creation God granted mankind dominion over all other animals and it would therefore not make sense treating man the same way as animals. Man can decide on how to use animals whether to use them for experiments or to for food.

There is no evidence that animals feel pain or that they possess emotional feelings and killing them would be justifiable especially when the method used to kill such an animal is painless.

Holmes questions the principle of equal consideration by use of an example of a burning house. He argues that if a house is burning and in it is an orphan and a bunch of rats, it would not make much sense to save the rats and leave the orphan to die. According to the principle of equal consideration, the rats have an equal right as the orphan to live. The value that rats bring to life is much less than the value a human being would bring and therefore it is true to say that human beings are more superior to animals and as such, they deserve preferential treatment.

2. Discuss both of following arguments for thinking that vegetarianism (as least insofar as it involves abstaining from factory-farmed flesh) is not morally required.(a) In nature, animals eat other animals. For example, lions eatantelope, and fish eat other fish. We humans are part of nature, andso it is natural for us to eat meat. Therefore, it is morallypermissible to eat meat.

According to Peter Singer, eating other animals is not good for the ecosystem. However, as a critique to this argument, it is morally permissible to eat meat. According to the Darwinian law of natural selection, human beings are stronger than animals and they are therefore justified to eat the other animals. It is a case of survival for the fittest so the way animals eat each other is the same way human beings should it animals. The more reason why this is justified is because if a human being met a wild animal say, a lion, such an animal would eat him. It is natural for people to eat animals and so their actions are justified. Vegetarianism is not morally required because it also fails to take into account rights of plants. Eating vegetables implies the killing of such plants. Many vegetarians are opposed to eating meat because it infringes on the right of animals to life. Interestingly though, they are selective on the animals they want to protect. For instance, none of the vegetarians fight for the rights of mosquitoes.

The moral principle of not eating animals so as not to cause them pain is illogical because there is a chance that death in the wild is mere cruel and more painful to the animal. Slaughtering such an animal will be saving it from the pain of dying in the wild. At least human beings are more humane and careful in their killing than most animals are.

Human beings are more morally superior to animals for instance if a human being finds someone suffering from hunger, they will be willing to share their food. Animals on the other hand do not have this moral superiority. This explains why a goat would not be willing to share its food with others. Vegetarians therefore deny humans this moral superiority by treating animals and people in the same manner and trying to justify that people cannot consume animals righteously. The concept by vegetarians is contradictory since if human being were not morally superior the issues of whether eating meat is right or wrong would not exist.

If animals possessed moral reasoning, then they would be in a position to differentiate between write and wrong in which case they would be held responsible for their actions. They would stand to be judged and punished for any wrong doing committed. Humans are superior to animals since they have the ability to use moral reasoning as opposed to animals.

Animals do not have rights such as right to vote and therefore would be no problem denying them a right to life by killing them. If the issue vegetarians have against killing animals is the physical pain caused to the animals, there are methods of killing that are pain free. This then morally justifies eating meat. A variety of animals feed on vegetables so if all human beings were to be vegetarians, there would be a lot of competition between animals and human beings. The environment would be endangered and most of the forest cover would not exist.

(b) We humans have a special relationship with God, and He has,through the Bible given us permission to eat meat. Therefore, it ismorally permissible to eat meat

Most holly books like the Bible and the Quran allow for the consumption of at least some type of meat. It is morally permissible to eat meat because human beings are members of the moral community while animals are not (Dale, 2008).By creating man differently from animals, men are more superior to such animals and therefore man is allowed to kill and eat them. The bible allows people to kill animals and offer them as sacrifice to God. Since man was created in Gods image, then it is right for man to eat animals following Gods example.

According to the utilitarian view, death alone without pain should not be considered evil (Dale, 2008). When human beings die, the tragedy is the loss of a potential life and not the physical suffering. This emotional suffering is brought about by the understanding and self consciousness that humans possess by the use of language. Since God did not give animals a language, then they do not suffer a feeling of loss due to death.

Another sign that God permits eating meat lies in the fact that He created man with a digestive system that is able to process and digest the meat and therefore eating meat is something that human beings were naturally meant to do.

Hunting is good to the environment because if it is not done, animals will die due to overpopulation.
According to the Bible, killing man is forbidden because he was created in Gods image. However, God allows people to take animals as food. This should be enough reason for man to kill animals. Gods rule against killing of man does not apply to animals as well.

The bible clearly states that man shall have dominion over animals. This gives man authority to use animals as they wish whether as food or as beasts of burden. There would be no point for animals to live unless they are of use to human beings and one valid way of using animals is by simply eating them.

The body of a human being was created in such a manner that it would require a combination of various nutrients for it to be healthy. It would be morally incorrect to just feed it in vegetables only. Even though there are other sources of proteins besides meat, their value to the body is different. This makes it right to eat meat and live healthy lives. Many people have died due to protein deficiency and it would be morally wrong to live carelessly by denying the human body meat

3.Environmental value is a species of aesthetic value, Discuss.
Environment refers to everything in the surrounding. When people have value for the environment in which they live, they will ultimaly preserve and in return have a beautiful environment. According to Kaushik (2006), the greatest aesthetic value is from biodiversity. People spend a lot of time and resources visiting wilderness areas due to their beauty. Such places should therefore be preserved as much as possible for the beauty they bring. The willingness people have to pay for the aesthetic value is much more reason for human beings to value their environment. Environmental aesthetics does not only include the beauty from natural environment but it also incorporates ones that are influenced by human beings. According to the cognitive views on environmental aesthetics, having knowledge about the environment is important for people to appreciate the beauty of environment. In appreciating environmental aesthetics, the environment should be looked at by its own right. The same way that for people to appreciate art they have to some background information on Art is the same way background information on environment is required so that human beings can appreciate its beauty.

There is also so much beauty in the unusual or rare species of both plants and animals. Seeing a creature that you have never seen before is so fascinating that we wish there were more of those in our environment. It therefore implies that if we value the environment and try as much as possible to preserve and conserve it, we will be surrounded by beauty.

A non cognitive position states that if we open ourselves to nature, we will be aroused by it. This is what they termed as the arousal model. The more willing we are to accommodate biodiversity, the more it will give us some form of gratification. Human beings therefore, in an attempt to become more motivated to care for the environment should travel more so that they are in apposition to see what other places have to offer in terms of nature. This exposure will give them some sort of deeper appreciation for the environment. Seeing how much diverse beauty the universe has to offer will cause people to contribute more resources towards environmental conservation.

If we value nature, we shall be willing to learn more about its history and view its beauty from a different perspective. It first requires a deep understanding of something before you can view it as beautiful. You need to have a deep understanding of why the object acquired the form it is currently in. When we appreciate the environment this way, we will be willing to do anything to have it remain in that state if not better.

In the nineteenth century, Europe and North America made the use of picturesque to create more appreciation for the environment. This increased the number of tourists from the aesthetics that nature had. If beauty in the environment can be a great source of revenue, then it will lead to environmentalists enforcing laws that deal with conserving the environment.

Judgment is highly influence by pleasure. The pleasure that we derive from nature determines how beautiful we find our environment to be and in this regard, the more beautiful we find our environment to be, the more we shall care for it. The untouched natural world is orderly and beautiful All nature that has not been touched by man is beautiful and appealing.

The beauty that is present in the wild animals makes man fight against hunting. Many environmentalist groups have come up as a result of the judgment people make on the environment. There is a very big relationship between aesthetic value and the amount of care we give to the environment.

According to Kant, there are various ways of judging nature in an attempt to have a clear view of its aesthetic value. Aesthetic judgment occurs from the ability of the object being judged to give pleasure or displeasure. In judging an object, we also bring into account universality. By judging an object as beautiful, we expect that every other person who looks at the same object will also view it as beautiful. This in relation to environmental ethics means that all people present will be taking measures to safeguard the environment. However, in this universality concept no one is compelled to judge something in the same way as another person. The mere fact that one person likes something does not mean that everyone else should like it. Human beings differ in taste as preference. This explains why one person would view a certain animal as a beautiful pet and therefore treat it with much dignity while another views the same animal as a source of food only. However, in placing these judgments on nature, some environmental sociologists only include the visual aspect of beauty. They fail to take account of mystery, attractiveness as well as mystery all of which contribute to the fascination by the environment.

In conclusion, it is clear that value for the environment is much related to the beauty that the environment has to offer. Conservatisms see an extra amount of beauty in nature that other human beings fail to see. Environmental value is therefore a species of aesthetic value.

4. Some environmental ethicists rely on the (alleged) fact that natureis essentially teleological. Provide some examples of this, and thendiscuss why you do- or do not- accept a teleological account ofnature.

Teleology is the study of purpose, ends as well as goals. Aristotle was the first to argue that nature is teleological. This was after examining ideas of nature from his predecessors as well as from his theories and ideas. People who are teleological believe that things happen the way they do because of what the end is meant to be. Mechanical causes are not the only ones that cause things to happen but the purpose of nature also contributes. According to Aristotle, all activities are future directed. Organisms in nature develop the way they do in order to serve a specific purpose. History is a good example of teleology. Once it comes to an end, then the purpose of mankind will have been fulfilled.
According to this argument, nature brings out order, beauty, purpose, complexity as well as adaptation and these features are all a minds products. Since there is a mind that produces nature then this mind therefore defines God and so God does exist.

Things are present for a function, for example, birds have wings for flying. Another example is the assumption that plants exist so that they can be used by herbivores, herbivores to be used by predators and those predators exist so that man can use them. It is an intertwined relationship where all things exist for the sake of others. This creates a chain of purpose within nature.

According to the teleological argument, there are different parts that make up an organism for instance tissues. These parts exist for the sake of the organism as a whole. They are therefore believed to exist to fulfill a purpose. Besides Aristotle, other people who believed in the teleological aspect of nature include Plato. His focus was on external teleology. He believed that the entire natural world was a product of a craftsman who was divine and who created a perfect natural order of occurrences.

Norbert Wiener, Juliana Bigelow and Arturu Rosenblueth wrote an article that introduced the cybernetic concept of teleology. They defined purpose as an action directed towards achieving a certain goal. According to them, teleology required that for a goal to be achieved there had to be a circular causality which required negative feedback. A cause and effect would mutually cause and affect each other.

George Collingwood in his view on teleology argued that nature was like a machine which had no control over its final causes. The origin as well as the use of such nature was outside its control.
Charles Darwin was also another environmentalist who believed in the concept of nature being teleological. This he portrayed through his concepts of survival for the fittest, struggle for existence and selection. In his theory of survival for the fittest, stronger animals win in the fight for scarce resources within the environment. Those organisms that are weak exist so that they may be of benefit to the stronger ones in future. Their purpose is therefore predetermined and they is the end fulfill those purposes (teleology, Para 12).

If we judge the whole of nature teleological then we shall be concluding that we live in a teleological system. However, not every aspect of nature is systematic. All products that nature has do not possess the same level of purposiveness.We can not judge those things that do not have purpose within nature as teleological. Not everything in nature therefore belongs to the teleological system. One critique to the teleological approach to nature is that there is no final purpose in everything since some things are meant to turn. For instance in the chain where plants exist for herbivores, herbivores for predators and ultimately those predators for man, the final party in the chain does not have a purpose. This is contrary to the teleological view where everything in nature is believed to possess a final purpose (Kant  Pluhar, 1987)

According to Kant, all other organisms exist for a purpose except man. The other aspects of nature exist so that they can benefit man either directly or indirectly. This is because of mans ability to reason and for his moral capacity.

I do not agree with the teleological view on nature because not all organisms are created to serve a specific purpose or to reach a certain goal. If it were so, all organisms that are of the same species would end the same way and after accomplishing a similar purpose. For example, all chicken would die through being killed by human beings to provide food.

5. Can value exist without valuers Why is the answer you give significant
No. There can be no value without valuers.The concept of value requires some one to evaluate it. Someone who properly understands what is being valued. Human beings are the only ones who can place value anywhere. There has to be human participation for judgment to be made on any non human object for example animals and plants. The existence of valuers is what makes it possible to determine the value of biodiversity and put in resources in place to facilitate much more of it.

Biodiversity has some great ecological value. Human beings value biodiversity because of the importance they place on the proper functioning of the ecosystem. If human beings were not in a position to value the environment, then the ecological benefits of biodiversity would not be enjoyed since there would exist no one to conserve the environment.

Biodiversity has great economic value and its protection saves the world a lot in terms of money. From nature, we are able to extract important materials that directly bring us wealth. Though this is a selfish argument by humans, they are the ones who benefit financially and they therefore act as the valuers. Although the environment also stands to benefit, it is not aware of this. If people who are money minded are made aware of the economic value of biodiversity, they will invest more in it by pushing for its conservation. The more economic value we place on what biodiversity can do for us, the more we will be willing to care for it. For instance, the moment people realize that some trees have medicinal value they become forest promoters. Doctors are able to do research and come up with benefits of certain trees for instance they were able to produce asprin, which is the most used over the counter drug from willow twigs. More than three thousand antibiotics are made from microorganisms.

More of the economic value of biodiversity is in tourism and industrial harvesting. One of the problems in attempting to find out the economic value of organisms lies in the fact that we cannot calculate their present and future value. Human encroachment on the environment is reduced because of the value placed on environments. Environmentalists spend billions trying to come up with better and sustainable ways of having the environment protected.

As human beings, we are able to place value on biodiversity with regards to their social amenity value. It can make peoples lives better and cause them to live lives with greater levels of fulfillment. It is this ecosystem that makes people lead descent lives. It provides them with materials to construct descent housing, eat descent meals and also have clean water for consumption.

Biodiversity constitutes great aesthetic value. It has such profound beauty. Animals, plants, landscapes all provide appealing scenes that in very many cases inspire artists to a very large degree. Beautiful landscapes attract people from far regions who come as tourists and we are aware of the great economic value tourists bring. Biodiversity gives people pleasure because of its beauty. The more beautiful you find nature, the more it will move you and not just inspire your eyes but also your soul. It therefore affects people spiritually.

It might sound strange but biodiversity has spiritual value. Some religions have sacred places of worship in such places as mountains or forests. Biodiversity is therefore very crucial in their spiritual lives (Zumbach, 1989). God also in the creation of the universe and also as portrayed in the bible put man in charge so that he could value the environment and take care of it. There is some relationship between the soul and spirituality and the fact that the beauty that nature holds can be able to move someones soul them the persons spirituality is largely affected by nature and biodiversity in general.
If there were no teachers in schools to give value to students performance by grading them, then there would be no importance of education. In that same case, if there were no doctors to tell us about importance of living healthy lives and eating correct diet, them human beings would probably neglect themselves and live carelessly. Having the knowledge about things and being able to value them is what makes us place more value in those things.

Biodiversity also largely provides scientific value to mankind. Animals are used in science laboratories to try and come up with medication for various ailments. If there were no animals for such tests to be conducted on, then human beings would be in great danger. The survival of each species should be protected since science is a continues process and scientists are not aware of which species they will require next. Life science can only be built on a variety of species. It should therefore be preserved in order to act as raw material for important experiments.

Such ability of the human being to be able to value the importance of biodiversity is what makes them more willing to conserve the environment. In conclusion therefore, for there to be any kind of value on any aspect of nature, there has to exist people to place such value on the object using quantifiable means that can be justified. It is therefore true that there is no value without valuers.

Ambers status in life and her desire to fit in with her workmates has contributed to her feelings of alienation. By changing her name and ridding all trace of cultural attachment to her home land, she was in effect turning her back on the people she felt most comfortable with. Her workmates appreciate her intellectual prowess and the business she brings to the firm but on an emotional plane, they do not bond with her. This is despite all the efforts she has made to try and become one of them by adopting their lifestyles.

She appears to be going through an identity crisis. In her professional life, she wants to be identified with her co-workers, adopt their mannerisms and live their kind of life. Despite making drastic changes, she has not been accepted into the inner group. Treated like an outsider, she feels unappreciated and frustrated that all her efforts were in vain.

In the process of altering her personality, she alienated herself from her Nigerian soul mates. Discarding her cultural wardrobe and adopting a different name sent a loud message that she did not want to associate with them. To her Nigerian friends, her new status and affluence seem to have changed her in reality, it is not her country mates who have rejected her, but she who has rejected them.

Amber should revert to her former name and dye her hair black so as to reconnect with her heritage and restore her natural beauty. This measure will recreate her Nigerian identify and develop a common bond with the community. At work and at official functions, her dress code should reflect the image of the legal firm but she should make a point of wearing cultural outfits to social events so as to enhance her African identity.

Amber should play a more active role in events involving her Nigerian counterparts including offering financial support and taking time to organize social occasions. This will endear her to them and make her feel appreciated and loved.

In conclusion, Amber should make concerted efforts to reconnect with the Nigerian community as there is a very slim chance she will make it to the inner group at work. By being   proud of her Nigerian background, she will establish a solid identity and gain the respect and friendship of those who associate with her.

Technology is a term that is usually employed in reference to the practical application of skills in science in order to suit the purposes of humankind living in this world. At present, there is a wonderful progress in technological development and it is certain that we are living in a time when science is limited only by our imagination. Most people are glad about what our civilization has been able to achieve during the last century. Some of the things that our great-grandfathers thought would be impossible are now a common occurrence in our daily lives. Although the society has greatly benefitted from technological improvement, it has also brought some problems.

Science and technology has brought increased benefits to the infrastructure in the society (Fallon, 1999). Faster and efficient means of transport, such as the advent of the electronic railway lines and modern airplanes have greatly benefitted the society. People can now travel from one part of the world to the other without difficulties. For instance, some years ago, man was using very simple ways of moving from one place to another. Man used horses, camels, or simply walked to reach his destination.

In cases in which individuals were forced to travel long distances, they had to sail in ships to reach their destination. However, with the advance in technology, the current situation is very different. This is because in a few hours, one can reach a neighboring town, in about twenty minutes one can get to the place of work, and it only takes a few minutes for one to get to the nearest grocery store. Voyages that could take place months to finish are now accomplished within a few hours by the use of the airplane. Some years ago, almost everything was analog. However, thanks to the invention of technology, almost everything currently is digitalized. The telecommunication industry has also greatly improved in this century. People are now able to communicate better by the use of mobile phones and radio services.

Technology has been a significant contributor to the globalization of our world. The advent of information technology has brought people to be closer to one another. In addition, it has enabled the worlds economy to function as one single independent system hence, people are able to transmit information faster and effectively. The obstacles that were posed by linguistics and geographic boundaries have not been able to withstand the fast advance in technological improvement. The world is now being referred to as a global village. This is because some nations, for example, Japan and Mozambique, which were separated from the rest of the world due to geographical constraints, are now reachable, thanks to technology.

It is important to note that if the society were absent, then there would be no technology in the world. This is why the invention of some machines has greatly benefitted the life of humans living in this planet (Haugen  Musser, 2007). It is difficult for the society to function properly if the industries currently present in this world were absent. Therefore, for a society to be complete, it requires technology for its well-being. The invention of the computers has brought many benefits to the lives of people. This milestone technological advancement has enabled people to advance in knowledge through gaining useful information that is essential in life. In our generation, it takes a few seconds to retrieve useful information from the internet. One is also able to send a message to a friend who might be living thousands of kilometers away just at the click of the mouse.

On the other hand, the efforts that people have made to apply science to suit the various needs of people living in this world has also been detrimental to the society (Hjorth et al., 2007). Technology has been cited has the major cause of various diseases that is currently affecting the lives of most people. These include, but not limited to, obesity, laziness, and improper personality development. Many people have been rendered jobless and others are worried because they lack adequate security at their workplaces due to technology. Privacy issues are now more rampant as more and more people are complaining. Some people have been obsessed so much with technology that they have become fatter and less healthy. This has been attributed to the increased use of personal automobiles that have made most individuals to reduce their frequency of doing outdoor activities such as walking and jogging.

The invention of smart phones and online gaming systems has negatively affected the well-being of the society. This is because most people nowadays prefer to stay at home and engage in few conversations with others. This addiction has impaired the social relationships among people (Anderson, 2009).Many people are currently immersed in a world of video games, instant messaging, and 3-D avatars where they simulate everyday life. This virtual world has allowed people to jog, marry, and have children.

Eventually, social isolation and serious cases of depression have been seen in most people. For example, in the U.S. alone, studies have found out that 5.3 percent of Americans suffer from depression because of a number of factors that include social isolation. Therefore, even though science can make our life to be more efficient, it is unable to take the place of human touch. Recently, sophisticated weapons have been created that are able to wreak havoc to the lives of people.  This has made people to die recklessly due to merciless use of these weapons. Moreover, some places on this planet have become so much contaminated such that no organism can survive there.

It is certain that technology can either impair or benefit the society. However, the current advance in technology has brought increased benefits to the society. From the period of the industrial revolution that took place during the eighteenth century, the world has experienced a fast advance in technological improvement. Even though the advent of technology has made life in this world easier and convenient, people should pay less attention to it. In order to avoid its disadvantages, it should be a lesser component of our existence, rather than the greater. This would ensure we have healthier and less lonely individuals living among us. Some people claim that as more advancement is made further into the frontier of technology, then the society is on the verge to self-destruction. This may occur slowly through the loss of culture and eventually a sense of self. As much as this may reflect the current situation, however, if we can limit technological progress, then will we be able to survive.

1. Do you think that individuals have the moral right to buy, sell, and use firearms If so, should this right be regulated by the government If so, how Or should private ownership of firearms be abolished altogether

Based on the reading, Locke and Load Lockean Rights and Gun Control, I am inclined to defend my stance as a believer of the moral right of individuals to procure firearms for the sole purpose of their personal security.  However, I also believe that this should come with certain regulations to assure that its purpose will be served truthfully.  One of the essential regulations that must be met is to allow only for short firearms to be sold to any individual.  Likewise, this may only be in the form of those hand guns less powerful than the .40 calibers being offered by the manufacturers, thus limiting the sales to .22, .30, and .38 caliber pistols.  Hopefully, this will minimize the occurrences of inflicting fatal wounds, even to those who are truly violating the human rights of others.

As the government is the only duly-recognized authority to implement such regulations, perhaps the best way to achieve an honest execution of such ordinance is to provide strict standards for issuing gun permits.  Other than the standard battery of psychological examinations, only one agency should provide the necessary permits.  This could either be the Firearms and Explosive Divisions of the national police force or any correlating agency with the same purpose.  Another step would be to limit the sales of firearms to only one per individual, regardless of his position or the dangers to his life and property that necessitated the need to own a gun.  Any further need for added security must be provided for by the police departments in order to assure that his personalpolitical influences will be within the bounds of the law.

In direct contrast to the prevailing reality, the successful implementation of this system will result in a society where the police force is the only sector that possesses a significant number of firearms.  Not only will this provide for a much safer environment, but will likewise enable our police forces to be more efficient in their fight against societal evils such as prostitution, illegal drugs trade, car-napping syndicates, and other organized crimes, as they will be confident that the opposing forces will be possessing of minimal number, if at all any, of firearms that will greatly endanger their lives.  

Morality Issue
The problem with the right of self-defense, as explained in the reading, is the apparent possibility of the citizens to abuse this tenet.  This was mainly the reason, especially in the more recent times, for the mass killings we have witnessed involving the youth, and wherein as many as 32 had been killed in a single occurrence.  Another problem with this precept is the tendency of the citizens to acquire a vigilante attitude, wherein they will task it upon themselves to execute criminals, thus putting the law into their own hands.  The prevalence of this situation will most likely lead to a society with heightened levels of public distrust and unrest, much like the case with northwestern Pakistan, as detailed in the reading.

While it is true that we must, in the best of our capabilities, ensure the safety of those we love, it would be highly dangerous for members of the society to possess unlimited and unchecked numbers of firearms.  The basis for this reasoning is simple not all of us are psychologically-balanced to wield such powers.  There is a clear danger that the slightest provocation, such as in traffic altercations where there is clearly no use for any shots to be fired, will result in a fatal shooting simply because one of the parties involved has a gun.

In a utopian society, we may dream of crime-less communities and neighborhoods, however, experience and logic tells us that this is not so.  The truth is that we live in a society where there exists a clear and constant danger of ones rights being violated.  This however, does not excuse us form acquiring too much fire power in our very homes, but necessitates for the introduction of some legal remedies in order to promote personal safety, and hopefully, will result to an environment that is much safer place to live.