Embryonic Stem Cells and Research Ethical Issues, Imperatives, and Professional Responsibility

The pursuit of stem cell research, with respect to the particular use of embryonic stem cells, has generated fierce ethical debates both domestically and internationally.  Although this debate has at times been characterized as perhaps the greatest scientific debate of modern times, a careful review of the literature demonstrates that the opposition to the use of embryonic stem cells is both overstated and unpersuasive when viewed against the potential medical and economic benefits and the when viewed more particularly from a bioethical perspective involving medical professionals such as nurses.   The opposition to the use of embryonic stem cells has tended with very few exceptions to have been rooted in religious doctrines and ethical perspectives.  What has not been properly discussed has been the fact that not all institutionalized religions oppose the use of embryonic stem cells, not all ethical theorists are unsettled by the use of these types of stem cells, and the fact that many modern states have constitutional provisions explicitly intended to separate religious doctrine and public policy.  In addition to this reality, the manner in which the religious opposition has been exaggerated and improperly characterized, there are also sound medical reasons and absolute economic imperatives for incorporating the use of embryonic stem cell research into the larger stem cell research context.  This essay will argue that the objections to the use of embryonic stem cells, while based on deeply personal reasons to those making those objections, are simply not supported by the legal, medical, and economic times in which the debate is occurring, that the religious objections have been grossly exaggerated, and that professional responsibility counsels in favor of embryonic stem cell research because of the potential medical benefits.

Religious Objections Exaggerated
As a preliminary matter, although it is an established principle to respect a variety of different religious perspectives in a free society, it is also a well-established principle that religion often inhibits the formulation and implementation of sound public policy decisions.  History is littered with incidents where religious institutions have dominated national policies and the results have rarely been positive in either a scientific sense or a social sense.  This history, regarding religious interference in scientific matters, has led one leading scholar in the embryonic stem cell debate to suggest that Its possible that these embryonic stem cells may lead to great things in the future. But in the here and now, religious conservatives see their destruction as nothing more than a high-tech form of cannibalism HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod111451259(Bellomo, 2006, p. 1).  The rhetoric employed, as it can be seen, seems hardly conducive to rational debate or to compromise.  Even a cursory examination of the religious critiques of embryonic stem cell research, and the scope of the religious organizations issuing critiques, demonstrates that the religious conservatives are a minority segment of the larger population and that they do not speak for all Christian religious institutions and affiliations let alone for citizens more generally.

One leading religious theorist, for instance, has acknowledged this division among religious opinion while simultaneously advocating a ban on the use of embryonic stem cells.  One of the most notable religious institutions that has broken ranks with other religious objectors is the venerable Church of Scotland indeed, it has been noted rather subtly in the literature that the Church of Scotland has made certain doctrinal concessions. Specifically, although it still argues against the use of embryonic stem cells for human cloning, it has come out in support of the use of embryonic stem cells that may benefit human reproduction, noting that
Insofar as God--argued the Scottish church--created human embryos for the end of human reproduction, such embryos, within the 14-day period, should only be used for research serving human reproduction. But since embryos created by therapeutic cloning have never served the end of reproduction, they can be used for medical research and the production of embryonic stem cells.

The main point, for purposes of this papers thesis, is that the political rhetoric on both sides is too extreme and misleading.  Religious opinion is hardly monolithic and many people with some form of faith support the use of embryonic stem cells in certain limited circumstances.  Moreover, some of the criticisms and cautions that have been attributed to strictly religious perspectives are in fact more nuanced ethical paradigms.  The criticisms emanating from religious institutions and religious academic journals must therefore be scrutinized closely to determine whether the commentary is of a religious nature or an ethical and philosophical commentary divorced from strict religious doctrine.  One excellent example of this type of ethical approach in a religious journal argues that
Our ethical reflection on human embryonic stem cell research and therapeutic cloning leads to the conclusion that these new techniques are in conflict with ethical norms, because they use early human life as a means to achieve an external end. This conclusion does not deny the good ethical reasons which can be named in favour of such techniques. Certainly there can be no doubt about the high ethical value that medical efforts to alleviate human suffering enjoy. Indeed, in the biblical tradition, human beings are never simply called to accept passively their fate, but rather to shape it with the abilities which God has given them.

The notions, in short, that there are uniform religious bases for opposing the use of embryonic stem cells or that religions are unified in their condemnation are simply wrong.  It would be more accurate to argue that certain religious factions are sternly opposed to this type of research whereas other factions support it entirely or in limited circumstances.  Religion is not a persuasive basis upon which to completely prohibit the use of embryonic stem cells.  There is also, in the United States of America at least, a constitutional reason for tempering the extant to which religious organizations are allowed to influence these types of public policy debates to be sure, in America, conservative religious organizations have exerted a substantial influence on public policy with respect to the use of embryonic stem cells.  It has been generally agreed, for example, that In the United States, the legal status of the human embryo has been a widely debated and highly political topic since the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade.   Bowing to pressure, President Bush imposed federal funding limits with respect to the use of embryonic stem cells.  The issue is made even more volatile because embryonic stem cell research typically involves both the alleged creation of life and its subsequent destruction whereas abortion deals only with the destruction of life element.  These distinctions notwithstanding, it has always been a guiding principle in the United States of America that church and state ought to operate in fundamentally different spheres.  One American congressman, linking this separation principle to the embryonic stem cell debate, has argued that this is not mere politics, but the imposition of religious beliefs, a deeper matter violating the established order of separation of church and state .

Any analysis of the religious features of this debate must acknowledge certain realities if the debate is constitute something more than partisan politics or religious warfare through proxy.  First, religious opinion is extraordinarily diverse and some religious institutions and many lay followers actually favor the use of embryonic stem cells in certain circumstances.  Second, many of the criticisms attributed to religious organizations are in reality bio-ethical commentaries that rely of ethical paradigms related to but independent of religious doctrine.  Finally, the principle of a separation of church and state explicitly provides that diverse religious views must be tolerated without being imposed.  Overall, the religious objections have been greatly exaggerated and used for political gains as well as for the imposition of religious beliefs not shared by many people.  This is not meant to suggest that religious groups should not be allowed to voice their opinions, for any free society must give free air to all opinions, but simply that the religious basis for objecting to the use of embryonic stem cells is an inadequate basis upon which to make either public policy decisions or ethical decisions that affect free societies.

Potential Benefits  Medically and Economically
In addition to rejecting religious objections to the use of embryonic stem cells, this paper also argues that the potential medical benefits and the associated competitive economic issues justify the expanded use of embryonic stem cells. First, the primary argument in favor of the use of embryonic stem cells has concentrated on the potential medical and health applications.  These potential medical applications are fundamentally of a regenerative nature and hold out some promise that once untreatable diseases can some day be reversed.  The potential applications are extraordinarily broad and include such diseases as human genetic disorders, stem cell therapies such as bone marrow transplants, blindness, deafness, diabetes, injuries to the spinal cord, and much more.  The potential applications, it would appear, are limited only by the scientific imagination.  It is important to note, however, that many of these medical applications are merely theoretical and have not been perfected.  The question thus becomes whether the use of embryonic stem cells, which have been shown to be able to renew themselves and differentiate into different types of cells, is justified with reference to these potential medical applications.  The answer must be a resounding yes.  The entire history of medicine, whether of a biological or chemical orientation, has always been about understanding and manipulating the natural world in ways that can alleviate medical suffering.  It has been argued that there is promising research regarding the extraction of preexisting embryonic cells that do not implicate the creation and destruction of life issues directly and that there is therefore plenty of time to wait for these refined research methods while attaining the same medical benefits in the longer term.  Such an argument ignores the nature of the competitive market economies around the world and the fact that innovations in biotechnology may lay the scientific and economic foundations for the next economic expansion much as the internet and the railroads did before.

The economic arguments in favor of the use of embryonic stem cells, even in the short term, are extraordinarily persuasive.  It has been noted that the current economic environment makes the economic arguments more compelling in this respect, one international legal commentator emphasizing the potential economic benefits of such research has noted that
The disparities among the laws of the various countries could have a profound impact on embryonic stem cell research, particularly in the United States. Specifically, the rigidity of the current U.S. policy may cost the United States its best and brightest researchers as well as its grip on a newly developing industry that promises new life to a sagging economy.

The economic risks are substantial given the fact that other countries are not as constrained by religious and ethical considerations as is true in the United States.  The very real fear, and one justified by economic history, is that scientists, jobs, and technology will follow the science as a result, limitations on the use of embryonic stem cells is very probably going to put America at a competitive economic disadvantage.

Bioethics, Utilitarianism, and Professional Responsibility
As a nursing professional, there are more specific ethical considerations related to ones bioethical perspective and related ethical obligations related to professional responsibility.  Terminology is sometimes confusing, given that some ethical concepts are used interchangeable when they do not mean precisely the same thing, but for purposes of this paper and the stem cell research issue, Bioethics is the subdiscipline of applied ethics that studies the moral questions surrounding biology, medicine, and the health professions in general.  As a more narrowly conceived type of applied ethics, which functions to grapple with a variety of difficult medical research issues such as the ethical issues raised by stem cell research , cloning, euthanasia, and  clinical drug trials, bioethical paradigms depend on underlying assumptions.  In my view, believing that professional responsibility means easing pain and suffering for the most patients possible, a utilitarian ethical orientation seems preferable to one predicated on religious assumptions or absolutist conclusions.  More specifically, as one bioethical scholar has argued with respect to nursing in particular, Utilitarianism can keep us mindful of the importance of the consequences of our actions, the effect these actions have on others, and the duty to minimize suffering.  Professional responsibility demands caring for patients in the most effective manner possible and utilitarianism favors maximizing the ability to care for the largest amount of patients possible in order to execute ones professional responsibilities.  Therefore, from the bioethical and professional responsibility points of view, it seems best to allow and to pursue embryonic stem cell research in an effort to ease human suffering.

Conclusion and Personal Opinion
In the final analysis, though reasonable people may quite reasonably disagree about the propriety of using embryonic stem cells, the best approach is to allow such research.  The religious objections have been greatly exaggerated and many people with religious convictions actually support such research.  In addition, there are medical and economic imperatives that strongly favor the use of embryonic stem cells.  The time has come to throw all of our resources behind stem cell research by including embryonic stem cells in this type of research.

Carnegie Book Review

This book by Peter Krass is a fascinating biography which reconstructs the life of a legendary and philanthropist industrialist by the name Andrew Carnegie. In this book Krass has recounted the life of one of the major figures in the history of Americans. Andrew Carnegie is described as a ruthless man who made a fortune in the steel industry and ultimately gave away most of it. By the time Carnegie died he had given out almost all of his money. He was the first of the super rich to become famous for his giving and trying to justify himself as well as building a philosophy around it. (Krass)

In this book Krass has tried to reconstruct the complicated life of this titan who was able to rise in power in the Americas gilded age. The author has also explored the contradictions of Andrew Carnegie who rose from lowly bobbin boy to build the most profitable as well as biggest steel company in the world. The author has also examined how Andrew Carnegie became the greatest philanthropists ever known and how he earned a notorious reputation which history has yet to reconcile with his remarkable achievements. (Krass)

According to the author Carnegie came from humble origins in Scotland. Together with his family they migrated to United States when he was still a child.  In the United States he got his first job as a messenger boy but he later climbed ranks and worked as a telegraph clerk, railroad executive and steel magnate. He first built Pittsburghs Carnegie Steel Company which was later merged with Elbert Garys Federal Steel Company. It was also merged with other smaller companies and they all together created the U.S Steel.  During his time a businessman he had made a fortune and through this he turned to philanthropy and also had interests in education. This is how he founded Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University, Carnegie Corporation of New York and Carnegie Endowment of International Peace. (Krass)

As stipulated by the author, he started as a telegrapher and by 1860s through his hard work he had already made investments in railroad sleeping cars, railroads, oil derricks and bridges. Carnegie also built his wealth further by selling bond raising money for the America enterprise in Europe. Most of his wealth was earned through the steel industry. It is believed it is the money that he had already made in the steel industry that made him to engage in steel business and thus opening his first steel company in 1870. This step is what cemented his name as one of the captains of industry.  By the 1890s Carnegies Steel Company was the largest and also the most profitable industrial enterprise in the whole world. In 1901 he sold the company to J.P Morgan who transformed it into U.S Steel. (Krass)

According to Krass, Carnegie as an industrialist in his steel business made a fortune and controlled the most extensive integrated steel and iron operations which were ever owned by an individual in the United States. In his reign he made two great innovations. The first was the efficient and at the same time cheap mass production of steel rails for railroad lines. The second was the vertical integration of all the raw materials suppliers. Carnegie Steel Company in the late 1880s was the largest manufacturer of steel rails, pig iron, and coke. It had the capacity to produce 2000 tons of pig metal per day. This was a result of the innovations that he had made which were very successful.  (Krass)

In 1888 he bought his rival Homestead Steel Works which was inclusive of an extensive plant served by tributary iron fields and coal, a line of lake steamships and a 685 km railway. In 1889 steel production in the United States had already exceed that of United Kingdom and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie went ahead and even merged with J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works which was named for Carnegies former boss and Pennsylvania Railroad president. He later merged with the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Hartman Steel works, Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, Keystone Bridge Works and Scotia ore mines. Through Keystone Carnegie supplied steel for and also owned shares in the Land mark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi river a project which was an important proof for steel technology. This project marked the opening of a new steel market. (Krass)

Carnegie after selling his company in 1901 spent the remaining years of his life as a philanthropist. After this year Carnegie turned the public attention from the shrewd business acumen to the public spirited way where he devoted himself to utilizing his fortune on philanthropic projects. In articles such as Gospel of Wealth and Triumphant Democracy, Carnegie gave his views about social subjects.  In the article Gospel of Wealth, he referred to people like him as those people who rose to the top as a result of superiority.  He also wrote that such people used their wealth as a trustee for the better society.  (Krass)

He devoted himself to providing capital from what he had made in steel industry for purposes of public interest, educational and social advancement. He was a supporter for spelling reform movement which was meant to aid English spread. He also funded the establishment of public libraries throughout United Kingdom, United States and other English speaking countries. In total Carnegie had funded the establishment of about 3000 libraries. He funded the establishment of Carnegie Institute of Technology at Pittsburgh and Carnegie Institution in Washington. He also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead in 1901 and for American college professors in 1905. He also funded the construction of 7000 church organs as a result of his interest for music. He also founded Carnegie hero fund for the United States which was alter established in other countries such as Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Canada, Italy, France and United Kingdom. (Krass)

Carnegie in this book by Krass is portrayed as a ruthless businessman. He is portrayed as a ruthless employer. The author argues that he used to pay his employees badly even though he does not provide support details to justify his claim. The author also asserts that he used to make his employees to work for 56 hours a week in good times and 84 hours a week in bad times. He also illustrates a strike which occurred at Homestead which lasted for 143 days.  The workers had gone on strike after they had demanded an increase of their salary with 30 percent after the companys profits had increased by 60 percent. Some workers even demanded for 60 percent. This led to the management to lock the union out. There were some workers who had not gone on strike and the management brought in those thousands of strikebreakers to work when they were safeguarded by Pinkerton agents. Afterwards operations in the company resumed but with non union immigrant employees who replaced the Homestead plant workers. The author has also portrayed serious accidents which occurred in the steel mills for instance the case of Jones. The author also describes the working conditions in steel industry as unsafe. Therefore those who worked in Carnegie steel company were always at risk. He also asserts that several died as a result of unsafe conditions even though it cannot be concluded so because the life expectancy in those days was 37 years and it even presumably lower in countries where the immigrant workers had come from. (Krass)

Even though Carnegie can be described as ruthless, his ruthless in business can be reconciled with his beneficence. Carnegie after making a fortune in business he in fact sold it to another person so that even other s can be able to have what he had. He also dedicated much of his wealth and time in doing philanthropic activities. Thus his riches helped the society in a very great way. He established many libraries which are still in use and thus he helped the society. He also established educational institutions through which the current generation has gained its knowledge. Therefore even though he was ruthless in his business practice what he gave back to the society was a more beneficial than what he had gained. This is because even after his death what he established still remains helpful to the society.

Hispanic American Diversity

Among the many Hispanic American communities, there are various notable similarities and differences. Most of the communities share much in common such as language mainly due to the virtual their origin (Tate, 2008). However, they have much difference in their reasons for migrating to America and their ease of assimilating to the main stream culture. This essay work seeks to identify the underlying similarities and differences of four Hispanic American communities. The paper in particular considers the linguistics, politics, social-economics, religion, and family aspects the Cuban Americans, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans and the Dominican Americans.

The first group to be discussed is the Mexican Americans. This Hispanic American community is the largest forming an estimated over eight percent of the overall population and an approximated 69.9 percent of the Hispanic population (Schaefer, 2006). The group has Hispanic as it main communication language. However, most of its second and third generations can fluently speak English after the introduction of bilingual classes in the community (Schaefer, 2006). On the economic sector, the Mexican Americans are not well established entrepreneurs. It is nevertheless to be noted that the large population of this community is marked with professionals of varied academic and skill qualification. It is this that has given them a competitive advantage in the job market, even holding positions in the federal government.

Religiously, Mexican Americans are predominantly Roman Catholics (Schaefer, 2006). It should however be noted that there still exist some protestant believers in this community. The group has its family as the core social structure (Tate, 2008). This is best demonstrated in how they treasure and respect extended families just as their immediate ones. Men have been traditionally seen as the heads and breadwinners in the family. They were therefore the final decision makers in the family. This has however changed over time due to economic hardship as well as the eminent influence of the main stream culture and nowadays women have started working to financially assist their families.

The second group is the Puerto Rican Americans. This group hails from Puerto Rico, a commonwealth of US, and is thus legally recognized as citizens of the US (Nostrand, 2005). The group has Spanish as its main language. However, it is worthy noting here that being a commonwealth of the American, the Puerto Rican Americans are quite fluent in speaking English, an element which gives them an added advantage over other Hispanic American groups (Schaefer, 2006). English is a common subject in elementary classes, making their second generation so fluent in English that in many occasions their heritage is put in question. On matters of religion, the Puerto Ricans Americans are mainly Roman Catholics. However, there are some protestant believers mainly of the Baptist and Methodist churches. The group is also marked with some Muslims among other religions.

In terms of family aspects, the Puerto Rican Americans group has a strong family bondage (Schaefer, 2006). However, due to their citizenship and English speaking ability, they have easy time in socializing with others Americans. They also have respect and low divorce rates, a factor which can be closely attributed to their strong religious background. In politics, Puerto Rican Americans enjoy all political rights of the American land except the right to elect the US president. Due to their sovereignty relationship with the American nation, this group enjoys a number of privileges over other groups. They are both free from federal tax payment and can freely migrate into and from America without any restrictions (Tate, 2008). Due to this citizenship privilege, the Puerto Rican Americans have competitive advantage in landing into good jobs compared to other Hispanic American groups.

The third Hispanic American group is the Cuban American community. This group of Hispanic Americans speaks Spanish as their primary language. However, due to the need for fluency in speaking English for survival, many members of this group have been forced to learn English as a way of realizing a competitive advantage in the American land (Schaefer, 2006). This is what has made fluency in speaking English quite high in their upcoming generations. Religiously, Cuban American community is marked with a mixture of almost all sorts of believers including some none believers. It is however worth stating here that most of the members of the community are Roman Catholic believers (Tate, 2008). The presence of none believers in this group has been closely attributed to their widespread assimilation into the mainstream culture.

Nevertheless, despite the widespread assimilation into the American culture, the Cuban Americans strong family bonding has never been fully destroyed. On the economic front, this group has been economically active in entrepreneurship. This is evident from the fact that they converted Miami into a modern city by establishing businesses (Tate, 2005). To demonstrate the value this group has for their culture, Miami has been well known for various Hispanic favorites. Politically, this group is legally recognized by the American constitution under the law of citizenship. They are therefore allowed to vote in general elections as well as nominate their own candidates (Schaefer, 2006). Just to note is that the group mainly practices conservative politics.

Now the paper takes on the fourth Hispanic American group, the Dominican Americans who are primarily Spanish speaking (Tate, 2008). It is however to be noted that this group mainly enter into the American nation illegally. Due to this reason, many struggle to learn English fast as a way of survival. This problem of illegal immigration has also been closely attributed to the ease with which members of this group assimilate into the mainstream culture. This trend is responsible for their increasing ability to speak English.  In politics, this is typically an illegal group and thus has no constitutional right to actively participate in any American politics (Schaefer, 2006).

Economically, the Dominican American community has not practiced active entrepreneurship. However, they have been known to instead invest back into their motherland (Tate, 2008). This has led many of them to live in abject poverty in the dreamland. They are therefore seen to have come with the main motive of developing their motherland. Another reason for failing to invest can be due to their illegal status in America. The members of this group are largely Roman Catholics but with varied mixtures of Jewish and protestant as well as Afro-Christian believers (Schaefer, 2006). The group upholds a strong bond to culture, faith and family thus find much difficulties assimilating into the mainstream culture. Though they believe in communal life and big families, harsh economic condition has forced them out of this big family trend.

In conclusion, there are a number of similarities among the four Hispanic groups discussed. They all have Spanish as their primary language. Still clear is the fact that Roman Catholic faith is the most dominant faith among the members of the four groups. The groups are still marked with strong family bondage culture. This is evident in their communal way of life.  

However, there are some eminent differences among the four Hispanic American groups. This is mainly in the aim of their migration into the American land. The Cuban American group for example still lives to their ancestors dream of realizing the American dream through entrepreneurship unlike the Mexican Americans (Schaefer, 2006). Still Dominicans have their motherland at heart thus living in poor status compared to the other groups. Another difference is the level of assimilation into the mainstream culture. The Dominicans have shown high resistance to assimilation than any other group. On constitutional recognition the Cubans are fully recognized as citizens of American with rights to vote and nominate their own political candidate as compared to the Puerto Rican Americans who are not allowed to vote the US president.

The Official Language Movement Bilingualism in Education and Politics

(1) Bilingual education has helped to provide a positive learning experience for students that speak English as a second language.  Unfortunately, there has been political opposition to bilingual programs coming from conservative groups. Some of whom argue that bilingual programs handicap language-minority students , and other groups argue that bilingual programs are not fair to European Americans because they give minorities an advantage (Campbell, 2010).  The public debate on bilingual education forces a choice between ones native language and English.  However, people seem to be forgetting that being bilingual is an asset.  Opponents of bilingualism support the idea that having only one language will help unify the nation.

(2) Bilingual education enriches the learning process and helps promote academic success.  When schools provide children quality education in their primary language, they give them two things knowledge and literacy.  The knowledge that children get through their first language helps make the English they read and hear more comprehensible, (Krashen, 1997).  However, because many language-minorities have succeeded without bilingual programs, opponents use this as one reason to argue against the programs.  Furthermore, critics claim that there is little evidence that bilingual programs are more effective than English only programs.

(3) A 16 year old student was suspended from school because he was heard speaking Spanish in the hall.  The school had no official policy, and had clearly violated the students civil rights.  This situation was not just about a student speaking Spanish.  Conflicts are bursting out nationwide over bilingual education, English-only laws, Spanish-language publications and advertising, and other linguistic collisions.  Language concerns have been a key aspect of the growing political movement to reduce immigration, (Heller, 2006).  The student represents a fear that the American society has related to a loss of U.S. jobs, lack of healthcare, and other social problems.

(4) Although some politicians believe that the government should not be paying for bilingual assistance, the house supports bilingual ballots in 31 states.  Many non-English speakers are U.S. citizens, and therefore they have the right to vote. Opposing politicians support the view that if people have the right to vote, the least they can do is to vote in English.

Values and Ethics

Part One

This test is about thinking.  Please think through carefully and write out your answer in a logical way.  Address the issue from the perspective of personal, professional, organizational and legal ethical positions.   Type your answers please worth 1 point each.  No need to repeat the case, just number following the case numbers below.

This final exam is taken from Combating CorruptionEncouraging Ethics, published by ASPA.  The ethical vignettes were developed by the International City Management Association in cooperation with University Research Corporation. Answer each question yes or no. Then explain your answer in several paragraphs following each question.  Be sure to cite sources from the text, lectures or any other source you feel is appropriate. Analyze whether the ethical decision is one or more of the personal, professional, agency or legal types we have discussed in class. You will be graded on the quality of your explanation.  

1.  The board of directors of the chamber of commerce has an annual weekend outing at a resort some miles from your city.  During the weekend there is golf, tennis, swimming, card games, dinner dances with entertainment and numerous cocktail parties.  During the day, there are sessions at which the chamber board reviews progress for the past year and discusses plans for the coming year.  For several years the city has contributed 100,000 annually for support of the chamber. You are a council member or the city administrator and have been invited to the weekend outing with all expenses paid by the chamber.  Do you accept the invitation and go for the weekend  Yes___     No______   Your reason

No.
As a board member, I have a moral responsibility not to waste citizens hard earned tax paid money for my personal leisure.

2.  You have been asked to speak at a Sunday brunch meeting of the city council of another city some miles away.  They want you to tell them about your citys cost reduction program, in anticipation of a Proposition 13 type measure that is being proposed by citizens of their community. At the conclusion of your appearance, the chairman hands you an envelope containing an honorarium check for 250 and explains that This is in appreciation for your giving up your Sunday morning.  Would you accept the honorarium   Yes______  
No _______.  Your reason

Yes.
Since I have worked hard to prepare for the speech, I deserve the pay check for my time.

3.  For many years, you and Frank Jordan have been close friends.  You went to high school together and were college classmates.  You were best man at each others weddings.  Your wives are good friends.  For the past 10 years, Frank and his wife have taken you and your wife to dinner on your birthday.  It is just something he insists on doing and it has become something of a tradition.  He can well afford it.  Frank owns the largest plumbing supply business in the state and does more that 500,000 in business with the city. You are a council member and you chair the council committee, which oversees procurement contracts including plumbing supplies.  Your birthday is coming up in a couple of weeks.  Frank has called to remind you that he and Mrs. Jordan have a special treat for your birthday dinner this year.  He has made reservations at a fancy new restaurant that everyone is talking about. Do you accept Yes______   No_______.  Your reasons

Yes.
I do not mix business with friendship. Each in its own place. I know that Frank has been a friend even when I wasnt a city administrator. So it would be very uncivil of me to accept a token of friendship.

4.  For some time police officers on three adjacent beats have met each day for a coffee break at a restaurant near a point where the three beats intersect.  They usually have coffee and a donut and occasionally a piece of pie.  You are a police officer and just assigned to one of the beats.  When you go for the coffee break the first day, and you walk up to pay the check, the proprietor says No charge.  Im glad to have you officers around.  The other officers leave without paying.  Do you pay your check  Yes______  No _______  Your reasons
No.
I pay my check because I do not want to feel obligated for doing my duty as a police officer.

5.  Henry Settles has worked in your department for a long time.  He is conscientious, in fact, maybe too conscientious, in the view of many of his fellow workers.  He is always at work on time, always puts in all his hours, and works hard.  But he expects other to do the same and frequently complains about others who are tardy or who take long lunch hours or call in sick when almost everybody knows they are not sick.  You are head of the department, which employs Henry.  Recently, Henry reported to you that some employees of the department were using city automobiles to drive to pro football games in a city about 100 miles away.  You put a stop to that but Henry has been persona non grata with many of the employees of the department since he snitched on them.  Henry is a leading candidate for a new position in the department - one that would mean a promotion for him.  Do you promote Henry  Yes_____   No_______.    Your reasons

No.
Henry does not appear to be a team player. His promotion may lead to a lot of discontent among his colleagues.

6.  A new civic plaza is included in the plans to restore the downtown area of your city.  The bond issue for developing the plaza, which was passed three years ago, is already too little to assure completion of the project because of inflation.  A developer who wants to erect a high-rise building near the plaza offers to buy a large tract of undeveloped land in the plaza area and donate it to the city, as a trade-off for permission to construct his proposed building higher than the present zoning restrictions will permit.  He has privately made this offer to you, the city administrator, and it is up to you to decide whether to communicate the offer to the city council. Do you pass the offer to the council   Yes______  No_________   Your reasons

No.
It would be like giving in to the builders greedy intentions. The bonds can be acquired in other ways like collecting funds from the citizens to build the plaza.


7.  You are the city administrator.  A few days before Christmas, a package arrives at your office.  Inside is a card from the vice president of a large corporation in your city.  The company never has done any business with the city.  The card says,  You are doing a great job for our city and we just wanted you to know that we appreciate it.  We hope you will accept this token of our gratitude.   You open the package and find a beautiful crystal vase, which you estimate to be worth 75 to 100.  Do you accept the vase  Yes _______  No_____.    Your reasons

Yes.
I will accept it on behalf of the city office since the vase is a token of appreciation to the city office, it can be kept as a property for the office.

8.  Your favorite brand of scotch is Chivas Regal, but you dont buy it too often because it is so expensive.  You have told this to the liquor dealer from whom you buy your booze.  Its kind of a joke. Think rich and drink cheap, you sometimes remark when you buy a less expensive brand.   The liquor dealer gets in trouble for bookmaking and his license is in jeopardy.  You, as the city administrator, have nothing to do with the hearing on suspension of his license, but the next time you go to buy liquor, you discover when you get home the sack containing your liquor includes a fifth of Chivas Regal which you didnt order or pay for.  Do you keep the scotch  Yes____   No______.   Your reasons

No.
It seems like the liquor shop owner is trying to bribe me.

9.  A physician friend of yours asks if you would be interested in investing in a doctors building, which a group of physicians plan to erect in the city of which you are the administrator.  No decisions involving your job are expected as part of the investment  the doctor is simply selling shares in their venture.  I will be next to a shopping center in a rapidly growing part of town.  You stand to more than quadruple the 25,000 cost of your investment in a short time maybe make even more than that.  You have the money.  Would you invest in the doctors building  Yes_____   No_____.      Your reasons

Yes.
It appears to be a good investment and I will gain from it in a legal manner.

10.  You are a department head and Hazel Stevens is one of our most valuable employees.  She has worked for our for years and is the kind of worker you can depend upon to put in the extra time and effort when it is needed.  She is always there during a crisis and several times she has handled situations that would have been uncomfortable for you.  You really owe her a lot.   Recently, Hazel came to you and admitted that for some time, shed been borrowing  money from the petty cash fund, and writing false receipts to cover it.  It was never much usually 10 or 15, and she always repaid it.  But her conscience has bothered her so much that she had to confess.  Under the citys personnel policies, her action is cause for dismissal. Do you fire her  Yes_____  No________.   Your reasons

No.
I would give her another chance because she has confessed. Seeing her past record, I would give a warning and be wary in future.

Part Two

We have discussed several cases in class. The following cases ask you to assume the role of several of the characters in this case and suggest a course of action based on personal ethics, professional ethics, or the law.  Think Organize And write clearly.

In your books Ethics in City Hall and Ethics Case Studies by Thompson respond to the questions at the end of each case study AND respond to the following questions

Case Studies in Chapter 4, 8, 9, and 12, 14, and 15.

Keeping superfluous garbage to a minimum
State the problem(s).  A concise statement of the problem that gets at the core of the matter.(Chapter 4)

In the first case the City Manager, Bill Nelson faces charges of forgery and misrepresentation of facts. To get the job, Bill had forged his educational certificates. He did not hold any degrees but he had submitted certificates for two undergraduate and a post graduate degree.
In his second job, he had plagiarized the content of an award winning website to create another award winning website.

Alternative actions or solutions.  Do NOT detail workings of each solution.  Briefly consider the consequences of each alternative.  Identify the ethical implications i.e. this alternative is considered ethical under the following moral philosophies because and this same alternative is considered unethical under the following moral philosophies because

The city of Cannon Edge could have treated him more leniently and put him in another post.
Statement of preferred course of action.  Give your choice of the above alternative. Defend your choice and show why you discarded the other alternatives, remembering to include ethical implications.

As he had exemplary past records for 18 years, his experience was invaluable and he knew the city through and through.

State the problem(s).  A concise statement of the problem that gets at the core of the matter.(Chapter 8)

Hingle was a paranoid schizophrenic. His actions were not humanly normal. He killed his wife in cold blood after a fight. In this case, the 911 operator did not respond to the first call from Mrs. Carol Hingle  as it seemed more like a crank call. In the second instant, the dispatcher sent a team as soon as she received her son s SOS that his parents were fighting. When to judge whether a call is genuinely urgent or not is a human fallacy.

Alternative actions or solutions.
The 911 dispatcher could not be held responsible as she tried to respond to the calls as per their priorities. She could not understand the urgency in the first instance.

More men and machines are to be deployed so that each call can be verified. Or as soon as a call is generated neighbors can be alerted and data can be collected from them.
Statement of preferred course of action.

I prefer neighbor watches. In this instance as soon 911 got a call, they could have asked a neighbor or Mrs. Carol Hingles sister to check and disaster could have been avoided.

State the problem(s).  A concise statement of the problem that gets at the core of the matter.(Chapter 9)

In the Marion Wallingford case, Marion was let off too easily although she had plagiarized her report and earned a masters degree. Although she headed the Ethics committee, she copied the central idea and parts of a paper presented by her colleague. It earn a few kudos, she stooped to the lowest levels of plagiarism

Alternative actions or solutions.
Marion Wallingford was given a very light punishment. It appears that people in influential posts were let off more easily than those in the lower echelons of power. Since her husband enjoyed a lot of clout at the university she retired honorably after 5 years. I prefer an immediate termination of her services from the board.

Statement of preferred course of action.
In this case there is a moral ineptitude on the part of Marion not to abuse their power which has been vested on them by the city authorities. Since she was in a public position people had put their trust and faith in her and she had violated this faith.

State the problem(s).  A concise statement of the problem that gets at the core of the matter.(Chapter 12)

In the case of Bob Slauson and Tappan, the city officials had hidden facts and had covered one of their own officials from perjury and tardiness which had resulted in a major fire.

Alternative actions or solutions.

Slausons and Tappans exemplary work could not hide the fact that they had covered up facts. Lives could have been lost. As soon as it was discovered that Bob Eberbach, the building inspector had lied about the condition of the building, he should have been fired.
Statement of preferred course of action.

Bob Eberbach should have been fired to serve as a deterrent to future lazy workers. Negligence on the part of humans is the cause of accidents.

State the problem(s).  A concise statement of the problem that gets at the core of the matter.(Chapter 14)

In the case of Lt. Fife, the citys civil defense director, it is a case of sheer negligence on his part. He was lazy.

On the other extreme a go getter like Marion Meriwhether got the educational program up and running.

In the third case Anne Canturbury was a good worker who could easily retrench to another job. The question is how to identify a good worker, eliminate the bad ones and hold on to the good ones.
Alternative actions or solutions.

Warnings can be issued from time to time. Relocation to other departments may be helpful in certain cases.

Lazy employees can be fired from their posts if all other methods fail.

Statement of preferred course of action.

First issue warnings to lazy employees and if it fails, fire the lazy employees. To keep self motivated individuals, we should create all the requisite work conditions preferred by them. To stop attrition of employees, we should try to provide them with better sops.

State the problem(s).  A concise statement of the problem that gets at the core of the matter.(Chapter 15)

Since the City officials are in public positions people have put their trust and faith on these officials and they have violated this faith.

But all the cases highlight that every individual has human fallacies. While mistakes are human, criminal offences cannot be pardoned.

Alternative actions or solutions.
The solutions to every case of criminal offence relating to city officials should be given maximum punishment to act as a deterrent for all future offenders.

Statement of preferred course of action.
Although the punishment meted out to the offenders in the case studies seem to have been accepted by the people, I would go for more severe punishments. If those in power are not spared then it will install a higher level of trust in our democratic system.

Business Law- Assignment 2

Utilitarianism is A moral theory according to which an action is right if and only if it conforms to the principle of utility(Mautner). Utilitarian principle was conceptualized by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill to promote fairness in British legislation. It argues that the rightness or wrongness of a decision is based on its consequences. If the consequences result in greater good for the greater number, then the decision is considered right. John Stuart Mill states in his greatest happiness principle that a decision should be judged based upon the magnitude of happiness and unhappiness it produces.

Contrarily, the golden rule or the ethic of reciprocity believes that everyone has the right to be treated justly. Golden rule promotes morally strong conduct in every occasion. It is essentially related to human rights.

Both concepts have their strength and shortcomings. Utilitarianism can be compared to a democratic system where the majority is taken into consideration. But majority consensus does not prove the authenticity of decision. It might happen that majority is mislead or unable or incapable to see details. Also, happiness and importance of a decision cannot be measured.

On the other side, how one would prove the legitimacy of the golden rule as every person has different opinions and choices. The golden rule is best seen as a consistency principle. It doesnt replace regular moral norms. It isnt an infallible guide on which actions are right or wrong it doesnt give all the answers. It only prescribes consistency(Gensler).Rights and wrongs also differ with cultures and conditions. There are no concrete standards available. For example Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism promote non violence or non killing of animals but in Muslims and many other cultures eating meat is a sacred ritual.

If Pat should follow the Golden rule that says that one should not discriminate between people or groups, she should disclose the real picture. The person asking for help had been her old friend and needs a genuine advice. The right response from Pat can save lot of trouble for her friend. On the other hand, considering her job profile and relationship with the employer, it would be insensible on her part to disclose confidential information. Her Boss had trusted her by sharing important information. If she releases it, she will be harming that trust. She is also under normative commitment with the organization.

But, if she should see the organization as a whole considering benefits of every other member, including management and staff, she should be more rational in her approach. Also, it has not been given if her boss is the final authority to make that decision or the decision is to be applied in any case. It might be possible that company comes up with some alternate strategy to deal with the situation. Moreover, Pats revelation can further add to rumor and restlessness amongst employees. She herself is a part of management team and, management is obliged to think of organization as a whole.

The applicability of both rules depends largely on the situation, seriousness and effects. Utilitarianism can be applied moderately in decisions that demands rational approach. And golden rule fits perfectly well when individuals are concerned. As the situation requires more of a rational approach at present, Pat can use utilitarianism and simultaneously consider some form of justice to her friend as an individual. Pat should not disclose the word now. She should tell her friend that she is not aware of any such decision. And, if the decision is applied, she should try to help her friend on a personal level. In conclusion, Pat should use a just and beneficial combination of both.

Forms of justice

If by any means the society eliminated discrimination, then the most poor can be thought to deserve their situation since they chose not to do much with their standardized talents. However if people vary in ability, they may get themselves surviving in poverty and in a non prejudiced society even when they tried their level best. This is an example of an injustice which according to Rawls should be rectified and could be neglected if it was assumed that people have the same equal talents and abilities (Linda  Baldwin, 1996). In the society however, there exists great disparities in the talents among the members which create a need for justice in the way that the benefits and the burdens of the society are allocated. The modern views of justice emphasize social qualities of fairness and equity. On the other hand, ideas of acceptable rational behavior emphasize self serving, individual choices which are not by any means concerned with equity. In such forms, rationality and justice conflict since it appears that rationality cannot manage a balanced social approach to justice and fairness. Various forms of justice are thus used to facilitate social fairness and equality three of which present the most compelling versions of social fairness. The distributive, procedural and restorative forms of justice are the basic forms of ensuring social fairness (Linda  Baldwin, 1996). This paper aims at discussing the relationships among these forms of justice as the most effective methods of enhancing social fairness in organizations and the society at large.

Forms of justice
Generally, justice refers to the fair and reasonable treatment of all persons regardless of their status, stature or backgrounds. It is often argued that justice is a good idea that does not apply in the present generation. This assumption is as a result of an ignorant approach to justice and a misconception of the purpose and foundation of justice in the society. There are many different forms of justice used to enhance social fairness and to promote peace and understanding amongst the members of the society.  Examples of those used in the modern society include retributive justice, restorative, distributive and procedural justice (Linda  Baldwin, 1996).

Distributive justice
Distributive justice is also referred to as economic justice. It involves fairness regarding what people obtain from goods, services and intentions. Distributive justice has its roots in social order and it forms the basic foundations of communism. In communism, equality is the fundamental principle. This form of justice argues that if people do not believe that what they are receiving is their fair share, they seek out first to achieve what they think is their fair share. The key principle in the distributive theory is the belief of the existence of a fair share to all people in the society. The principles of distributive justice are normative and are designed for guiding the allocation of both the benefits and the burdens of an economic activity. The fundamental principle of this justice is strict egalitarianism. Egalitarianism advocates for equal allocation of material benefits to each and every member in the society. This principle is often justified on the grounds that people are owed equal respect and that equality in material goods and services is the best way to give effect to this ideal (Plato, 1996).

Procedural justice
Procedural justice is based on making as well as implementing all decisions in accordance to the process of fairness. The proponents of this form of justice argue that when people are treated with dignity and respect, they are affirmed that the procedure followed is justified and hence they easily accept the consequences which they were not pleased with. The theory of fairness (by John Rawls) also applies in the thoughts of fair play. This is opposed to the fair share ideas of the distributive justice. In this form of justice, people believe that if a fair procedure was used to decide what was distributed to each person, they might allow a disparity in what they get, in contrast to others. However, if they tend to think that the distributive and the procedural forms of justice reflect any injustice, they seek for restorative justice (Plato, 1996).

Restorative justice
It is also referred to as corrective justice. Restorative justice is used as the justice of last resort if the distributive and procedural forms are seen to be unjust. In essence, the foremost thing that a betrayed person seeks from the traitor is restitution. Restitution entails taking back things were they were before the betrayal occurred. The easiest form of executing restitution is a direct and straightforward apology. Restoration may involve an act of contrition meant to demonstrate that the offender is sincerely sorry. As such, there may come into play an extra compensation to the party offended. Restorative justice is the best way of responding to criminal acts in the society because it emphasizes on the wrong committed to a party in addition to the wrong committed to the society at large. It recognizes the fact that crimes are a violation of the relationships existing between specific individuals and also an offence to everyone (Plato, 1996).

The relationship between distributive and procedural justice
In essence, procedural justice is the second phase of the theory of justice which starts off with distributive justice. In a fair society, people will seek to ensure that the benefits and the burdens of the society are distributed in an equitable manner and that every member of the society or a given group is allocated their fair portion. However, when there are questions concerning the distribution of such resources or other benefits, the members of the group automatically want to know what criteria was followed in arriving at the decisions-thus the procedural justice comes into play (Linda  Baldwin, 1996).

For about two decades ago, human resource managers have acknowledged the significance of the relationship justice and effectiveness in an organization. Two forms of justice are very important and applicable in organizational effectiveness procedural and distributive justice. Whereas distributive justice is concerned with achieving the ends and the substance of fairness, procedural justice deals with the means of achieving these ends and the process of exercising fairness. This being the case, procedural justice is therefore the process of facilitating distributive justice (Linda  Baldwin, 1996).

The two forms of justice have been mostly applicable in organizations while dealing with factors of performance appraisal in the workplaces. Performance appraisals are lately the main focus of procedural justice. Perceptions of fairness in performance evaluations have a relationship with managerial and employees chances of expressing their feelings. When performance appraisal procedure is carried out in a fair manner, the employees are satisfied that the benefits of the organization have been distributed equitably (although not necessarily equally) and this enables the company or any other organization in the society to achieve the intended goals (Tang, 1996).

The differences between procedural justice and distributive justice
In an attempt to separate the roles of the two forms of justice, the proponents of these theories have repeatedly argued that distributive justice usually predicts a level of satisfaction with the output or the outcome of the distribution while procedural justice exerts influence on the evaluation of an organization or the management. This implies that distributive justice results in satisfaction while procedural justice results in trust in the supervision as well as organizational commitment. Once procedural justice has been made fair, it becomes hard to question outcomes (distributive justice). Distributive justice has many times accounted for more exceptional variation in pay satisfaction and a personal degree of assessment than procedural justice (Maiese, 2004).

In an organizational setting, distributive justice usually predicts individual- level evaluations such as pay satisfaction while procedural justice predicts organizational-level assessments such as commitment to the organization. Without procedural justice, employees in an organization would work only because they want good compensation for the work they have done, but not for the success and development of the organization. Therefore, combined together, distributive and procedural justice aid in ensuring that employees are not only satisfied with their work but they are also committed to the organizational values and growth (Maiese, 2004).

The principles of distributive justice are basically normative principles which are designed for guiding the allocation and distribution of the benefits as well as burdens of the economic activity. However these distributive justice principles in real life vary in many dimensions relating to subject matter of distribution (welfare, utility, opportunities, jobs, wealth and income), nature of distribution subjects (groups of people, natural persons, and reference classes) and in terms of what distribution ought to address (maximization, equality, individual characteristics and free transactions (Linda  Baldwin, 1996). Procedural justice on the other hand has a precise and define course since it ensures justified process of conducting activities and transactions in any societal setting. As a result, people and organizations have developed a tendency to prefer procedural justice as the basic method of executing justice and addressing the complaints related to fairness and justice because it is simple and direct and can be understood easily by any member of the society (Linda  Baldwin, 1996).

The differences between procedural and restorative justice
What makes procedural justice fair is the element of consistency while what makes restorative justice is the restitution of the offended party back to the position they were before the wrong was committed. Consistency in procedural justice facilitates fairness because the process used to determine what is fair in one incidence must be similar to the process that will be applied in future to handle the same issue. For example, if a company uses employee turnover rates in appraising and promoting junior workers, the company must come up with a given criteria for determining the degree of turnover that will not be eligible for the promotion. This criteria need to be applied while assessing all the workers and all the time the same procedure need to be used, unless the company policies are deliberately changed or adjusted (Tang, 1996).

Restorative justice is used as a curative method in executing justice while procedural justice is a preventive method in executing justice. This is to mean that for the case of restorative justice, the harm or offence has already taken place and the only option available is in restituting the condition back to where it was (Braithwaite, 2008). In contrast, for the case of procedural justice, the no offence has taken place but there exists an element of the like hood of the occurrence of an offence in the future. As such, the procedural justice method generates questions on the processes being used to execute justice in the society as a means of mitigating or preventing the possibility of any offence to the parties involved. In the society, an excellent example of the procedural justice is peaceful demonstration by either the general public or by a certain group that is not satisfied by the situation they are in (say civil servants or company employees) (Braithwaite, 2008).

The application of the principles of John Rawls in promoting social fairness
John Rawls is regarded as being one among the key political philosophers during the twentieth century. Primarily, he is widely known for his famous theory of justice as fairness. The theory of justice as fairness demonstrates the principles of justice that govern the order in a modern society which presumes that justice no longer exists. His theory develops a framework which clearly explains the importance, within a society that is presumed to comprise of equal and free persons, of equal chances, of personal and political liberties, and cooperative provisions that promote the less and the more privileged members within a society (Byne, 1958). Although Rawls conception about justice is similar to any other philosophers conception on the same subject, his justice as fairness theory presents the most excellent picture of the relationship between different persons in the same association. He uses two main principles which are necessary in analyzing and determining the most excellent forms of justice that promote social fairness. To begin with is the first principle that states that each and every person has an equal right to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic liberties which is compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for all (Byne, 1958). This principle supports distributive justice that will be discussed later is an essential form of justice that greatly promotes social fairness. The other principle by Rawls states that social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions they must be attached to offices and positions open to all under the conditions of fair equality of opportunity and the second, they must be to the greatest benefit to both the individual and the entire society (Byne, 1958). This second principle finds its application in the rest of the two forms of justice discussed earlier in this paper procedural and restorative justice respectively (Byne, 1958).

Conclusion
This three forms of justice forms the best combination of a societys justice system- simply because they exist as a series of actions taken to promote, implement and sustain justice in the society where there lacks justice (Tang, 1996). Distributive justice is applied to promote it, procedural justice to implement a process for promoting the justice and restorative justice as a means of restituting the society or its members to the position they were in before justice was violated. In a society where this forms of justice are applied by the authorities, there not only exists social order but also fairness and fulfillment among its members.
Company is the defendant in numerous lawsuits claiming unfair trade practices. Sell Soft has a strong incentive not to disclose these contingent liabilities. However, GAAP requires that companies report their contingent liabilities.

Answer 1Businessis to read rivals mind and have the product in the marketbefore the rival with better quality and cheaper rates. A companydiscusses its contingent liabilities among the trusted partners ofthe company. Disclosing the contingent liabilities is like giving therival the recipe of your most secret dish and expecting that he wontcook it and sell it in the market. so a company should never discloseits contingent liabilities completely.

Answer 2During war time a company applies for a big loan in the bank. Asnecessary documentation is required, the bank asks information for thepurpose of loan. Company as discussed in their contingent liabilitiesdoesnt tell the real purposes rather tell that they want to establish acotton factory. However the real purpose is to buy weapons at nominalprice and sell them at higher rates as there is a big market demand forweapons due to war.The bank will face loss by two different angles1. The percentage of profit would be far more than the interest rateof the bank.2. A bad name to the bank will be earned.

Answer 3Reporting contingent liabilities needs a great deal of care to makesure to satisfy the rival still not telling the recipe of thesuccess. For example whenever making a deal the company shouldemphasize the other one that they will be getting double of what theyinvest careful not to tell that the company itself will be triplingits investments. like wise theres no need of telling who will beearning a good name from the market. Just focus on the benefits of theopposition when in front of them. Noneed of mentioning your ownbenefits.
In deciding whether or not Ford should be held liable for the Pinto case, the facts must be briefly discussed.  Studies show that at the time Ford made the decision to continue with the production of the car their research showed that the estimated cost of modification each and every car is estimated at 11.  On top of this, the company needed to immediately address the issue of the invasion of German and Japanese Cars in the market.  This means that there was a pressing need to address the issue.

The basic facts that Ford has to contend with in deciding were the following.  The first is that at that time a human life was valued at 200,725, as per industry estimates and court awards for damages.  The cost of all estimated deaths and injuries is 49.5 million while the cost for modifications of all cars is valued at 137.5 million.  In making the modifications, there were these alternatives Lobbying against safety standards and applying for a patent for safer gas tanks.  From the foregoing, it seems that safety was never an objective.  This led to the three (3) main decisions that Ford could choose from 1.) Postpone production and initiate modifications to the Pinto at the cost of 137.5 million, 2.) Continue production and pay 49.5 million in estimated damages, or 3.) Stop production of the Pinto.

In this case, the Ford Pinto should not have been produced even if it initially sold well.  The facts show that there was a danger that was posed to the customer.  This is something that cannot be quantified in dollars and cents but if one were to place a figure, like Ford did, this would be in the millions of dollars of profit.  As it is, the Ford Pinto clearly is a hazard to faithful Ford customers and the general public.  With the number of sales that Ford made that year, it would not be unreasonable to think that they would probably not have gained so much even if that budget model sold well.  As such, it is clear that Ford should not have produced the pinto.

Even considering the differences in todays society and the one previous, there is no justification for pushing through with production.  The situation before was even more economically viable because it only meant a US 20-30 upgrade.  As compared to the recall situation facing Toyota these days, there was an even greater danger with the Pinto which could be solved by a cost effective solution.  As such, there is no justification, economic or otherwise, to continue with the production of the Pinto, then and now.

Euthanasia

Annotated Bibliography
Cundiff, David. Euthanasia is Not the Answer a Hospice Physicians View. Totowa, NJ
Humana Press, 1992. ISBN 089603237X, 9780896032378.  
Terminal illnesses are commonly associated with thoughts of pain and agony prior to the death of an individual. Contrary to such concepts, the book highlights and expounds upon the possibility for individuals with such illnesses to live out the final days of their lives in a calm manner. Specifically, through proper physician support and through the care provided by the family and relatives, it may be possible to escape considerable suffering. Hence, through the points discussed in the book regarding such a possibility, an effective argument against euthanasia may be derived.  

Dowbiggin, Ian. A Merciful End the Euthanasia Movement in Modern America. New York,
NY Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195154436, 9780195154436.
While the book provides an overview of the historical development of euthanasia as a movement, focus upon both medical limitations and human autonomy. To further expound, as stressed out in the book, the presence of medical shortcomings in properly coping with incurable diseases as well as appropriately supporting elderly patients provide support for the need to allow euthanasia. In addition, it is also emphasized that since freedom and autonomy are supposed to be among the rights of individuals, then euthanasia should be legally sound as well. Hence, the book would be of significance in providing insights regarding the main arguments in support of euthanasia.

Friedlander, Henry. The Origins of the Nazi Genocide from Euthanasia to the Final
Solution. Chapel Hill, NC University of North Carolina Press, 1995. ISBN 0807846759, 9780807846759.
The book links euthanasia with the Nazi genocide as the deaths of numerous handicapped individuals were initiated. To further explain, discussions throughout the book are focused upon euthanasia as a misleading movement to conceal the directives and interests of Nazi leaders. In particular, instead of merely allowing individuals to die through a merciful fashion, euthanasia has been converted into a means of eliminating individuals that may detrimentally affect the genetic superiority of the population. Thus, given that the Nazi have used euthanasia in such pursuits, the information presented in the book may be effectively utilized for emphasizing potential detrimental risks and outcomes if euthanasia would be legalized.

Keown, John. Euthanasia, Ethics, and Public Policy an Argument against Legislation. New
York, NY Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0521009332, 9780521009331.
Instead of focusing upon the ethical aspects of euthanasia, specifically in terms of whether an individual should be allowed to die upon request due to pain and suffering, the discussion presented throughout the book offers insights upon the legal aspects of the issue. In particular, concerns regarding the feasibility of effectively controlling and limiting the appropriate use of euthanasia are given emphasis. It would not be appropriate to simply assume that upon legalization, euthanasia would be continuously practiced without resulting in additional problems especially in determining whether it is applicable for a situation or not. Therefore, the book would indeed be a valuable tool in providing strong arguments against euthanasia as it provides insights into the uncertainties associated with legalization.

McMillan, R.C., Tristram Engelhardt, and S.F. Spicker. Euthanasia and the Newborn
Conflicts Regarding Saving Lives. Netherlands Springer, 1987. ISBN 9027722994, 9789027722997.
The book provides vital insights regarding another purpose of euthanasia. In particular, as noted throughout the book, such a practice may be considered as a means of preventing additional suffering from occurring for infants with severe birth defects. Expectedly, the presence of such defects, depending upon the degree, would cripple the life of the infant if not completely delimit it to a few months or years of existence. In this sense, as highlighted in the book, if euthanasia would be allowed, then a humane way of saving such infants from unwarranted difficulties. Therefore, given such points, the book may certainly be considered as an important source of information in developing argumentative support for euthanasia legalization, in relation to the welfare of certain newborns.

Nicol, Neal and Harry Wylie. Between the Dying and the Dead Dr. Jack Kevorkians Life
and the Battle to Legalize Euthanasia. Madison, WI University of Wisconsin Press, 2006. ISBN 0299217108, 9780299217105.
The book provides insights regarding one of the most iconic figures in the movement to legalize euthanasia, Dr. Jack Kevorkian. Also known as Dr. Death, Kevorkian was imprisoned due to his pursuit of gaining public acceptance for euthanasia which involved the broadcast of a patient that opted to undergo the aforementioned medical process. In general, the book highlights the fact that Kevorkian draws upon the logic and rationale that individuals have the innate right to choose as to whether one should embrace death or instead attempt to live on despite the severity of ones conditions. Therefore, the information presented throughout the book would certainly provide additional support for establishing arguments in support of euthanasia legalization, with a distinct focus upon humanistic aspects such as the freedom of choice.  

Olevitch, Barbara A. Protecting Psychiatric Patients and Others from the Assisted Suicide
Movement Insights and Strategies. Westport, CT Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc, 2002. ISBN 0275969576, 9780275969578.
While euthanasia is associated with the right of patients to choose death as an escape from the repercussions associated with terminal illnesses, an important assumption in such a concept is that such patients have proper mental capabilities. The book points out the fact that not all patients that may request for euthanasia are rid of psychiatric concerns and thus such an act may not completely reflect the needs of such patients. In addition, further insights regarding the manner in which such concerns may be prevented have been delineated as well throughout the book. Thus, the book would be another valuable source of information in providing possible detrimental effects if euthanasia would be legalized.  

Otlowski, Margaret. Voluntary Euthanasia and the Common Law. New York, NY Oxford
University Press, 2000. ISBN 0198259964, 9780198259961.
While the issue of euthanasia is usually debated through the use of ethical and legal perspectives, it is still important to consider the views of populations regarding the issue. In the book, it has been pointed out that euthanasia has been gaining public support and acceptance throughout recent years. In fact, such support has not only been noted in the United States but throughout other countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia. Therefore, given the book highlights the presence of public support for euthanasia, not only in a national scale but on a global level, as established through the use of polls, then it would certainly be of significance in providing arguments in support of euthanasia legalization.

Rehmann-Sutter, Cristoph, Marcus Duwell, and Dietmar Mieth. Bioethics in Cultural
Contexts Reflections on Methods and Finitude. Netherlands Springer Publishing, 2006. ISBN 140204240X, 9781402042409.
The book provides discussions regarding the economic aspects of euthanasia. In particular, it is emphasized in the book that not only does ethics and legal aspects matter to the evaluation of why euthanasia should be allowed but financial capabilities and economic factors are of significance as well. Given such, a terminally ill patient who is constantly given life support with virtually no chance of recovery would require considerable amounts of money to be spent upon such procedures. The outcome of course is already predetermined if not already known. Thus, given such points regarding the economic importance of euthanasia in allowing for a more efficient allocation of funds for healthcare have been discussed in the book, then it is for certain that the book would be a vital resource in providing arguments in support of euthanasia.

Scherer, Jennifer M. Euthanasia and the Right to Die a Comparative View. New York, NY
Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1999. ISBN 0847691675, 9780847691678.
Albeit the fact that the book provides an in depth discussion of the main aspects pertaining to euthanasia, it is important to emphasize that discussions regarding the historical trends of public support have also been provided. Basically, the it has been highlighted in the book that public supports for euthanasia have previously declined due to various reasons associated with the war but at present significant support for such a movement have been established among the American public. In essence, such support has been linked with support for the autonomy of the individuals, such as family members with terminal diseases, as a sufficient reason for allowing euthanasia. Hence, such a book would be vital in providing facts and trends regarding public support to the euthanasia movement.

Somerville, Margaret. Death Talk the Case against Euthanasia and Physician -Assisted
Suicide. Canada McGill-Queens University Press, 2001. ISBN 077352245X, 9780773522459.
In the book, multiple reasons as to why euthanasia should not be legalized and accepted throughout the society are given. However, an emphasis upon the meaning and essence of death, especially in relation to human ethics and concepts of fear, is thoroughly discussed throughout various chapters. Specifically, instead of merely perceiving the issue as an offshoot of concerns regarding will and freedom, the book highlights the social meaning of death which may in turn be undermined if euthanasia would be legalized. Thus, such a book is certainly of value in conducting a research on the topic of euthanasia as it provides alternative insights as to why legalization is not a proper course of action.

Would legalizing euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide save money for the American
healthcare system. ProCon.org. ProCon, 6 Oct. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2010 httpeuthanasia.procon.orgviewanswers.aspquestionID000203.
Although the an overview of both sides of the argument regarding the impact of euthanasia upon the healthcare system may be seen through the webpage, it is important to point out that it provides arguments against euthanasia in relation to the aforementioned aspect as given by experts in the field of medicine. As a matter of fact, a lack of support regarding the potential beneficial effects of euthanasia upon healthcare funding may directly be attributed to beliefs that the savings that may be gained are too meager and insignificant. And so, the webpage may be regarded as a useful tool in further establishing arguments against euthanasia legalization and its perceived effects upon national budget.
In The Ethics of Bias in Counselor Technology published in 2006 in the journal Counseling and Values by Anne Dorre and Richard Kinnier, the authors address the incongruity that they see exists between the ideal image of mental health professionals (MHCs) of being emphatic and caring professionals in comparison to prevailing use of biased counselor terminology. The first two tasks set by the researchers is to provide a definition of what constitutes biased terminology as well as a description of the ideal counselor. Their third objective is to be able to evaluate the ethics of bias, differentiating between principle ethics and virtue ethics.

The main reference subjects and standards used by the studied involved in previous similar studied developed by the American Mental Health Counselors Association (AMHCA) as well as considered the ethical and professional standards set by the American Psychologists Association (APA). The hypothesis of the study is that there is a presumptive association of ideal characteristics to MHCs which can conceal distressing which can have significant negative effect to clients therapy and welfare. Research findings show, based on the definition of the ideal counselor and bias in terminology, that there is existing bias in counselor terminology. However they also pointed out this can still be effectively addressed by developing greater sensitivity and responsiveness to the issue by practicing MHCs and professional organization efforts such as The Task Force for the Development of Practice Recommendations for the Provision of Humanistic Psychological Services. The study then concluded that MHCs should take up the responsibility of challenging the biases in counselor language not only as an effort to be more politically correct but because of a real recognition of the importance of the issue. Finally, they recommended a thorough of existing vocabulary and terminologies which can then be incorporated to professional and ethical standards.

Bioethics

Casedecision Scenario Seven
Answer to question 1
The Stein kind of argument is able to be supported from the approach that placebos or sham medical procedures are actually important to people in developing, poor countries where there is no hope of even getting any other type of medical intervention (Paul 86). It is supported on the basis that unlike in the developed world, the patients in the developing world are greatly helped when they are given even false drugs as long as they stand a chance of improving their health. That aside, they also provide an opportunity for other people elsewhere to benefit from the research. Finally, a placebo will most likely cause the patient to improve through the placebo effect.

Answer to question 2
The Congo study is exploitative because although the drug used actually has the potential to help the patient when administered in the correct dosage, this is not done (Decision scenario 7 210). Instead, the patient gets a placebo of the same drug. In the end, the patient is only used to benefit others while heshe gets no benefits at all. In essence, the drug is tested on hisher but it not used to treat hisher. This is exploitation.

Answer to question 3
In order to test a drug in poor countries, it is important that the people on whom the drug is to be tested give their consent based on a clear and explicit knowledge on the likely effects of the drug and the outcomes or consequences (Paul 86). In essence, the people ought to be made aware of the risks as well as the benefits. The World Health Organization also ought to verify the safety of the drug and give its consent. Finally, the government of the country where the testing is dome has to make a freewill choice  no incentives ought to be used to ease any opposition (Paul 86).

Answer to question 4
Utilitarian theorists will oppose the views of Andy based on the argument that if the procedure can be of some use or pleasure to others, then it is justifiable as moral. When Kants theory, which provides that a human being is never to be used as a means to and an end but as an end to oneself, then Andys objection to the Congo-type tests is decisive (Hill 312).

My position
I agree with Kant on the issue that there is no way a human being, who has inherent self worth, ought to be used as a means to any end. The end never justifies the means in a case where people are involved (Hill 312). Clinical trials of the kind described here are highly exploitative and serves to alienate the poor, the sick, the dying, and the desperate at the expense of the rich and the living. The fact that the one group of people is defenseless does not warrant another to use this powerlessness to exploit them.

If it is a really genuine medical test, then why cant it be done on the advantaged societies in the rich countries If there is nothing not hide and instead there is openness and goodwill, how many people from the developed world will readily come forward and sign up for such procedures. Definitely few, if any at all. Therefore, I  believe, every clinical test ought to be done on the people who will benefit only.

Casedecision scenario eight

Answer to question 1
Such experiments are not ethical (Paul 86). It is on the basis of ethical considerations - at least animal ethics - that these experiments ought to be vocally opposed. It is not morally right for any animal which has feelings and has a right to life just like mankind to be subjected to such a  torturous kind of treatment. In fact, every living thing has the right  to live and there is no justification to use brutal force and other cruel methods to bring about surrender on the part of the animal. This would not be any better if the experiment was aimed at saving lives (Decision scenario 8 96). There are better, less cruel approaches that can be taken under such circumstances.

Answer to question 2
I personally do not think that my position on the ethical considerations on such matter ought to be any different because of the understanding that my own child or a close relative is to benefit from such. Rather, the point to be grasped is that any opposition to the method ought to be made on the basis of the cruelty with which such experiments are done and not on their potential usefulness - even if it involves my own self or loved one.

Answer to question 3
There are enough grounds to prove the sanctity of human life over any other life and most religious groups will attest to this. The creator of all things required that mankind be given priority over all other animals and plants. In fact, mankind was to have dominion over the other entire living things on the face of the earth. This is a position that is for those followers of Christianity as a majority religion. People of other faiths might not have any such grounds. Using patients in chronic vegetative state in experiments violates their rights to live as they are made to die in an unnatural way. This is tantamount to murder, I believe.

My position
The value that scientific researches and discoveries have brought about is great. They have helped save lives of many people and have become a part of the daily lives of these people. To that, it is a very good practice and approach. However, the problem arises when these experiments are conducted in ways which are not conventional but are very cruel (Decision scenario 8 96). This cruelty is never acceptable because it contravenes the moral and ethical rights of some of the animal species involved. If science has to be used productively and to be without a lot of controversy, it is essential for the researchers not to carry out their experiments on the species that cannot defend themselves. Only then can the magnitude of the pain inflicted and the level of cruelty meted on these harmless and defenseless creatures can be actually quantified.

Marginalized groups of people like the chronically ill, the dying, or even those who have consented to such experiments ought not to be the targets of such experimentation. It is amazing that certain people have to be aided to die not because they are actually in such a dire need of dying but because someone wants them dead so a vital organ of theirs can be used for some scientific research. It defeats logic that animals and defenseless people become the targets of the scientific experiments even if they are very beneficial. What is ironical is that these researches tend to benefit the rich more than the poor who cannot easily afford the technology, yet it is the poor who are most likely to be used as potential objects for the experimentation.  

The practice of euthanasia is confronted with the conflict between the right to life and personal choice

Lady Campbell, a bedridden woman suffering from muscular atrophy, commented on a TV interview
If I should ever seek death  there are several times when my progressive condition challenges me  I want to guarantee that you are there supporting my continued life and its value. The last thing I want is for you to give up on me, especially when I need you most (quoted in Evander 2007).

The right to life guarantees every person the legal and moral protection against the termination of ones life by another person through whatever means. Every human being has the right to live hisher life to the fullest, enjoying all the possible accompanying privileges. However, when the quality of live deteriorates beyond humanly tolerable conditions, the question arises whether continued living does the sufferer any good. If Lady Campbells ailment subjects her to intense pain and suffering, so much so that life itself becomes intolerable, then wanting to die, and having that personal right to die a personal death, theoretically, makes active euthanasia not only a choice, but also the only alternative.  If her condition renders her both physically and mentally inactive to the extent of making her unconscious of life and life support futile, then physician assisted euthanasia gets some legal weight in countries where the practice is legalized. It is at this point, when it becomes both legally and ethically necessary to end life that the conflict arises between medical practice and personal choice on the one hand, and the right to life on the other. While the former focuses on the quality of life, the latter emphasizes on its sacredness and sanctity.

How far can one really go in determining hisher fate Why cant Ramirez be left alone to make the ultimate decision of her life Are people so rocky hearted, and the ethical trappings so insensitive, that they cant grant a dying person her last wish Not quite really, I guess for, when people are inclined to make decisions that a sound mind would otherwise question and disapprove of , it automatically disqualifies such persons from making life decisions, even for themselves. It happens so often that suicide survivors regret their actions, and later conclude that perhaps it wash hardy foolishness, anger and short sightedness that made them to lose control of their mental judgment. In this light, Ramirez could be making unconsidered decisions out of pain. Her children could figure that she is in pain and as such, not acutely conscious of her decision. When she gets well, maybe, she will see that she was wrong to wish death upon herself. Ender (2007) casts doubt on the competence of such terminally ill patients to make right judgments given the fact that their mental capacity is inhibited. Even if they may be reasonable in light of the circumstances i.e. pain, they could not pass as suitable in view of the implications.

Ramirez is 88 years old, terminally ill, and undergoing very painful experiences and she wishes to bring it to an end through death. Understandable think of the many times your have experienced pain, either emotional or physical, and you had inwardly thought, I wish I could die. We are talking about bone cancer- pain that hurts to the bone, literally. If Ramirez doesnt wish to live a minute more, then we know why she simply cant stand it, because it is so painful and unbearable. So maybe she has- in sound mind perhaps, decided that death is the most welcome event in her present situation. We cant deny her that, can we Human feelings of compassion, love and pity can compel family members to go into any length to ease the pain. Gay-Williams (1979) observe that euthanasia under such circumstances is justified. If the person or others might be better off, then it is alright to carry out euthanasia. Therefore, active suicide will be okay on the part of Ramirez since it will end her pain and suffering.

Yet again, it becomes equally painful to those concerned - though in a different sense- when death is the only way of dealing with the pain. Love, close relations and shared experiences make it impossible to willingly let a loved one slip off. Under such circumstances, you cant tell the physician to administer the fatal injection simply because it was too painful to watch her suffer so painfully.

Up to this point, Ramirezs son, daughter-in-law and granddaughter reason on a common understanding they value her to the extent that even when life makes no sense to her, they still want her to live. The echo of Lady Campbells words reverberates again The last thing I want is for you to give up on me, especially when I need you most. So, Mrs. Ramirez, your children just dont intend to give up on you- not yet. It could be that they understand the pain and suffering caused by the illness, but giving to death is even more painful. Similarly, it is possible that they could live with the guilt of having killed their mother if they willingly commissioned the euthanasia. Their conscience will prick them every time they think about it, with the doubt that she could have lived, if only they had been patient a day more, and waited a little longer.

Age could be a factor in their difference of opinion. At 88, she has reached a point where even if she were in good health, she would be waiting for death anyway. Her potential of a future, as one might argue for an embryo threatened with an abortion, is not that high like that of a fetus that will grow. So, Ramirez is seeing life from a perspective totally different from that of her son, daughter in-law and grandchild. It couldnt make much sense to live in pain until she died of old age, just a few days later

It then emerges that her daughter in-law and grandchild would not see her suffer until she dropped dead. If it comes to such a point that the shadows of death overtake her, then a physician-assisted suicide would make sense for then, she wouldnt be conscious of her condition. If that not be the case, then it translates that the doctors would have figured out that a second more wont make any difference in her life. Their stand seems to deny her some portion of her right to life, but then under circumstances where the difference between death and life is so thin that in reality, there is no difference at all. Being dead and clinging to life unconsciously through life supports is, one could say, the same thing actually.

The son is an M.D, reportedly. So perhaps he understands the forays of medicine and science more than the rest. He believes, almost convinced, presumably, that it is possible to treat her condition. With this scientific perspective, it is only reasonable that he could object to any form of euthanasia. His mother should live until death itself defeats medicine. It is a sound and pro-life argument that accords the sick woman her right to life at all costs. But then, it does not overweigh the logic of her wife and daughter, who understand that death cannot be stopped always, even for the loved ones. But then again, Singer, a physician author, coincidentally, shares his sentiments when he notes that it becomes very difficulty when that person is your mother (qtd in Preece 2002, p 30). The only difference, however, is that Singer thinks the money used to support a terminally sick person, who will eventually die regardless, could be put into better use helping the poor.

To make a suitable decision, therefore, demands that we examine the condition of the patient and the chances she has of leading a quality life in future. And, in the case of Ramirez, two realities stare at us her sickness is terminal and second, she is at the very last phase of life. We should not depend on her judgment to end her life. However, at the right time, when everything else seems to make no sense, the doctors should switch off the machines and let her rest. It is here that morality fails to shed light on the problems we face, and euthanasia finds its value (Lachs, 1995 p188). Indeed, human wishes and desires notwithstanding, there is a point in life when man should accept his mortal nature.