Ethics

Kants position on self killing is somewhat controversial as it is open to various interpretations by different scholars. His use of concepts like categorical imperative, rational thought and dignity of the personhood present a prima facie case against suicide and euthanasia (Kant 59, 1964). Any action that emanated from rational thought and was intended to promote moral good is according to Kant, ethical. Persons seeking to end their lives because of unbearable suffering are contemplating amoral actions since they are motivated to treat the self as a means to an end rather than an end in itself.  A detailed analysis of Kants philosophy shows that he while he was against suicide and euthanasia , he would have permitted it in certain instances provided the act stemmed from rational thought and was for the moral good of society.

Categorical imperative demands that mankind abides by the moral standards set by society (Kant 66, 1964). Any behavior that goes contrary to these social norms is therefore immoral and wrong. The sanctity of life cannot be treated as something to be dispensed with as though it were a commodity traded on the open market. The finality of death makes it all the more precious and life should be safeguarded at all times and preserved by any means possible. Thus, the golden rule that states man should not kill should be sufficient reason to prohibit suicide or euthanasia. Kant does not provide an exception for terminally ill persons to escape their sufferings by opting to die from self afflicted acts as this would result in a conditionally valuable end (Vrong 651).  He concludes that such acts benefit self and devalue human dignity by placing a very low value on the sanctity of life.

Kant goes further to denounce suicide on the basis that it destroys an individuals capacity for rational thought. He considered rational thought to be the most important factor that contributes to human existence and differentiates mankind from all other forms of life (Vrong 655).

He makes a reasonable argument that is absurd for the mind to promote its own destruction by advocating for suicide or euthanasia. Such thinking would be irrational and immoral because not only does it go against the categorical imperative, it eliminates the very being of self by killing the mind and all rational thought. This argument reinforces Kants opposition to people in pain opting for death to avoid suffering since dying will deprive them of the faculty to think rationally.

With regard to dignity, Kants position was that the ability to make rational decisions is what gives the human beings their intrinsic value (Kant 346, 1998) Suicide and euthanasia remove the ability for one to make rational thoughts and thus rob mankind of their dignity. This invariably cheapens human existence and contradicts the categorical imperative that posits human life is sacrosanct.

However, suicide and euthanasia would seem permissible to Kant provided the raison dtre fulfilled the threshold he considered important to the furtherance of morality and human dignity. If an act of self or assisted killing brought happiness to the greater good of society, according to Kants philosophy, this act would be permissible (Kant 337, 1998). Kants example of a man bitten and attacked by a rabid dog explains this concept succinctly. Fearing that he was about to lose his mind from the incurable disease, the man prefers to kill himself to protect others from contracting rabies from him. This case fulfills the categorical imperative that one should be mindful if others at all times and thus from a morality viewpoint, self killing in such a case is perfectly permissible. It should be noted that the primary consideration was not ending the personal discomfort the infected man felt but rather, his concern for fellow man that prompted his decision.

Following up on the same reasoning, one could make an impassioned case that a sex addict living with the Aids disease would be justified in taking his or her own life to prevent others from getting infected during sexual escapades. The failure to control this addiction means that the addict would invariably make irrational decisions to have sex with unsuspecting partners. This puts such partners at   risk of being infected with the virus and ultimately developing full blown Aids.  The threshold in this case would be fulfilled since, when overcome by the addiction, the addict is unable to make rational decisions. Kant believed that the ability to be rational was an important aspect of human dignity and when the ability to make rational decisions was absent life was not worth living (Gregor 63).

Consequently, addictions without cures could be the basis for people to commit suicide provided such decisions promoted the good of mankind rather than personal comforts.

Euthanasia as a remedy for people losing their mental faculties may be permissible since the rational factor was in jeopardy. Living vegetables demean human dignity as these persons are unable to support themselves or live a meaningful life (Gregor 57). Kant would have made exemptions in such cases and allowed self or assisted suicide to preserve human dignity. The issue of sanctity of life would be secondary since irrationality would become the hallmark of mentally incapacitated persons which belies the justification for living. Kants philosophy vaguely suggests those who are allowed to carry out euthanasia since the action must be carried out by someone ascribing to the established thresholds.
Those administering the lethal drug must be convinced that their actions will advance the cause of mankind and not their personal wishes. If any happiness is to be derived from the action, it must be because the world will be a better place and not because the person stands to gain financially or materially from the death.  Kant would oppose euthanasia even when the person seeking it does so selflessly provided it is established that the executor has a personal interest.

In conclusion, Kants philosophy opposes suicide and euthanasia since such actions run counter to categorical imperative, the preservation of rational thought and the dignity of mankind. However, his theories would permit self killing in certain instances where the predominant factor was the good of society and not the pursuit of conditionally valuable ends. Even in instances where euthanasia would be permitted, Kant insists that the action be carried out by people with pure intentions rather than by those with vested interests. The overriding factor in deciding when to permit or oppose self killing is whether the action is carried out for the benefit of mankind or for selfish purposes. Should an action fail to meet these thresholds, Kant would not support it.

There have been many instances of companies indulging in unethical practices in the recent past and this is a cause for concern. There is also growing uneasiness in society about business ethics. Corporate concern for ethical practices is evident in many corporations developing and implementing codes of conduct. Unethical practices break the laws of the country the company is working in. Many unethical practices have been identified in companies. This paper explores the use or breach of ethical practices in companies. Does being ethical pay Are firms who are more ethical top performers These are the questions that need answering. This paper aims to answer these questions.

Ethics is a branch of philosophy.
   
In recent years, there have been many instances of companies indulging in unethical practises and this is a major area for concern. Lefebre and Singh (1992) reported that there is growing concern in society about business ethics. Corporate concern for ethical practices is evident in many corporations developing and implementing codes of conduct. This paper explores the use or neglect of ethical practices in companies.

Ethics in Business and the Business of Ethics
We may find universality in some issues relating to ethics but broadly speaking, ethics is very dependent on perception. What may be right for one person may be wrong for another. These variations in perception may be due to culture, religion, or demographics. For example, a woman may wear a swimsuit in Florida. If she wears the same attire somewhere in Saudi Arabia, the people there will consider it incorrect as it is not in line with their culture and religion. Some things are universally unethical lying, cheating, stealing, or murder is such a practice. There is a fine line between being ethical and unethical and as such some universal unethical acts may be viewed as ethical. Capital punishment, abortion and euthanasia are examples of ethical dilemmas that have yet to be termed as completely ethical or unethical.
   
Blackburn (2009) says that human beings are ethical animals. We grade and evaluate, and compare and admire, and claim and justify. We prefer that our preferences are shared. If it is hard to distinguish between ethical and unethical behavior, then how does one define these  In a simple way, we can say that being ethical helps you sleep at night with a free conscience. Of course, what bothers ones conscience may not bother another. Even though ethics may vary from people to people, we will try and look at this without any relativity. We will look at practices that are either ethical or unethical (Lama, 2001).
   
Business ethics are more than moral values and principles that determine our conduct in the business world. These refer to the commercial activities, either with other business houses or with a single customer. They can be applied to all aspects of business, from generation of an idea to its sale. Business uses the society for its resources and functioning, thereby obligating it to the welfare of the society. While the objective of all business is to make profits, it should contribute to the interest of the society by ensuring fair practices. However, greed has led the present business scenario towards unethical business practices, legal complications and general mistrust (Aadityaa, 2010). According to Stojnov (1996), though Kellys work did not explicitly aim to produce a special theory of ethics, it offers enough basic principles to give us an idea of what a personal construct theory of ethics would look like. He articulated the implicit theory of moral construing and reviewing its similarities to, and differences from, other theories. He proposed that personal construct psychology be construed as a universal and constructivist approach to ethics.
   
Business ethics refer to the collective behaviour that a business adheres to in its daily dealings with the world. Evans (2010) defines business ethics as the moral standards which guide the running and transactions of businesses. According to him, the fundamental issue is why we need different sets of ethics for different sections of our lives. Why, for instance, is there an implicit assumption that business ethics need to be in any way different from the ethics which govern our family lives The bottom line is that business ethics come in many guises, depending on how broad moral paradigms play out against specific corporate culture - and they certainly feed directly through into the trading bottom line.
   
Aadityaa (2010) lists a few ethical business practices that should be followed to build an honest reputation and ensure smooth running of any organization

Investors Ensuring safety of their money and timely payment of interest.

Customers Complete information of the service and product should be made available. Personal information of the customers should not be used for personal gain.

Competition Unscrupulous tactics, competitor bashing and wrong methods should be avoided while handling competitors.

Government Rules and regulations regarding taxes, duties, restrictive and monopolistic trade practices and activities like corruption and bribing should be adhered to.

Corporate Response to Ethics
Corporations respond to expectations in organisationally integrated ways, one such process is formal corporate ethics programs. American businesses are now investing in formal ethics programmes. A recent study of American companies showed that 78 of them had codes of ethics, 51 had telephone lines for reporting ethical concerns, and 30 had offices for dealing with ethics problems (Weaver, Trevino,  Cochran 1999). All companies in the 21st century have established their formal and informal codes of ethics. These codes of ethics directly impact their business practices, reputation in their respective industries, and customer perception. Companies try to inculcate ethical behaviour into their employees through training and by imposing consequences on people who breach the code of ethics. Business ethics along with corporate governance have become the new buzzwords in the field of management.
   
Ethical codes state the major philosophical principles and values in organizations and function as policy documents which define the responsibilities of organizations to stakeholders. They spell out the conduct expected of employees and articulate the acceptable ethical parameters of behavior in the organization. To be effective they must be communicated well and become a part of the culture of the organization (Stevens, 2008).        

According to Howard and Korver (2008), we often make small ethical compromises for good reasons we lie to a customer because our boss asked us, or we exaggerate our accomplishments on our rsum to get an interview. Temptation blindsides us and we make snap decisions we later regret. Minor ethical lapses can seem harmless but they instill in us a hard-to-break habit of distorted thinking. We lose control of our decisions, fall victim to the temptations and pressures of our situations, taint our character, and sour business and personal relationships. Howard and Korver (2008) explain how to master the art of ethical decision making by applying distinctions to clarify our thinking and committing in advance to ethical principles.
   
With recent increased attention on how businesses conduct themselves internally as well as how they impact their local and global environmentscommunities, the importance of business ethics has increased as rules and regulations have been established and enforced through various governmental agencies to protect the rights of consumers, employees and shareholders of companies. Kaptein (2004) suggests that business codes are an oft-cited management instrument. Of the two hundred largest companies in the world, 52.5 have a code. These codes describe company responsibilities regarding quality of products and services (67), adherence to local laws and regulations (57), and the protection of the natural environment (56). Many codes make reference to principles governing stakeholder relations, corporate core values, appropriate conduct among employees and treatment of company property by employees.  Scwartz, Israeli,  Murphy (2004) carried out a study of 57 employees including ethics officers at four large Canadian companies and found that in terms of code content, effectiveness is potentially improved when provisions are clearly justified and examples are provided.

When Ethics Go Amiss
Unethical practices break the laws of the country the company is working in. To this we can add the moral behaviour of a company that shows unethical behaviour. There are many unethical practices that have been identified. Some of these are window dressing, inside trading, discrimination, sexual harassment, bribery, price fixing, and claiming anything which is not the truth (Frankena,1988).

Window dressing and unethical accounting practices have become very common, as companies want more people to invest in their companies. Like every other unethical practice, this practice can be deemed as short term in nature. Investors look at the financial data of companies before deciding on investing in the stock of the company. In case of unethical practices, they would eventually realize that they had made a mistake and they would not invest in the company again. The truth does not remain hidden for a very long time. When it does, the company may face fines and the investors would demand their money back. Capital would start to pour out of the company.
   
According to Aadityaa (2010), the following are some of the activities that come under the ambit of unethical practice
Resorting to dishonesty, trickery or deception.
Distortion of facts to mislead or confuse.
Greed to amass excessive profit.
Creation of false documents to show increased profits.
Harming the environment by exceeding the government prescribed norms for pollution.
Sexual discrimination.
   
To strengthen this point we can look at some examples that relate to and are a part of daily lives of many people. We are faced with ethical dilemmas daily. If you cheat in an examination you are bound to get good marks and pass that course. If you are caught you might face consequences like expulsion, suspension, failure or humiliation. It is a risk one can take if one really wishes to pass the course. If one is not caught then it would mean that the person ends up passing the course without doing any work for the course. In the short run this person may also be recognized as passing the test but in the long run, this person would have no idea or clue about the concepts that he had studied. One has to realize that knowledge learnt is an asset that never goes to waste. In this case we can see that being unethical may seem an easy path towards success but it might also lead to knowledge that is lost in the long run (Thiroux, 2008).
   
Regarding the practice of bribes, according to Cohen (2010) Peter Drucker, the famous management guru, noted that bribery was hardly desirable from the viewpoint of the victim from whom a bribe was exhorted. This was a gross violation of business ethics. Most countries have laws against bribery. Yet it is a fact that bribery is routine and even expected in some countries. Bribes are an issue that has plagued both the developed and developing countries. Bribes can be made to government officials to look the other way for a violation of building regulations, or be given to individuals within client companies to get preference for your company. Bribes are also used to win over contracts from different clientele from competitors. Bribing is giving material benefits to someone in authority so that he does something unethical to help a company gain an unfair advantage. This brings an ethical dilemma for a company. If it acts ethically, it ends up with a disadvantage against its competition. By the looks of things it seems that ethics actually gives you a disadvantage over your unethical competitors. In such a scenario what does one do, act ethically and let your competitors trample over you or act unethically yourself (Curley, 2005)
   
The biggest unethical practices that companies use today are in marketing. The consumer is led to believe things that are not true. Marketing is all about getting your brand in the mind of the consumer. Many companies play with the minds of their consumers and make space for their brands in their minds. Sublimation, sex in advertising, children in advertising, and defaming your competition, are all practices that are used in marketing to gain an advantage over the companys competitors. All these practices are unethical and even marketers agree on this, yet companies use such practices to gain a competitive edge over others.

Makepeace (2010) says that promotions that create unrealistic expectations for the product invariably result in lower pay-up on the back end. Hard-offer marketers know that over-the-top promises result in much higher cancellation rates and much lower response to secondary sales and renewals. What can you do to narrow or eliminate the gap between your promotional promises and the reality of the benefits your product or service delivers Or, even better, what can you do to deliver MORE than your promotion promises

Unethical Practices in Companies
Let us look at some of the top performing companies in respect to ethical practices.  HYPERLINK httpwww.businessweek.combiosShoshana_Zuboff.htm Zuboff (2009) reported that The financiers at  HYPERLINK httpbx.businessweek.comAIG AIG were awarded millions in bonuses because their contracts were based on the transactions they completed, and not the consequences of those transactions The economic crisis is not the Holocaust, she says, but it derives from a business model that routinely produced a similar kind of remoteness and thoughtlessness, compounded by a widespread abrogation of individual moral judgment. As we learn more about the behavior within our financial institutions, we see that just about everyone accepted a reckless system that rewards transactions but rejects responsibility for the consequences of those transactions.
   
For Enron, the consequences of its collapse were widespread. A heavily publicized result of the companys filing for Chapter 11 was the disintegration of millions of dollars invested in personal employee pension funds. With 21,000 employees worldwide, Enrons destruction was a devastating and irreparable setback for many working and middle-class families (BBC, 2002).  Combined with millions of subscribers who lost a functional service provider, the population represents the dire consequences of the misappropriation of a corporate entity with so many stakeholders. The relationship between ethical business practices and business survivability cuts across a great many human path. The effect of a business culture without real or defined behavioral parameters will ultimately be the subversion of economic rights for a great many innocent parties.
   
It was in response to Enron, WorldCom and other corporate scandals, that the US Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 as a stopgap solution to corporate corruption and ethical breaches. The bill provides new or greatly enhanced standards for all U.S. public companies in terms of their boards, their management, and the public accounting firms that are linked to their management and services (Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 2002).
   
The consequences of being unethical far outweigh the short-term benefits as was experienced by Microsoft after its legal wrangle. Companies today face a lot of competition and to sell their products they need to properly manage their relationships with their customers. In an age where information is freely available and so many competitors are fighting for the same set of customers, companies that are able to build relationships with customers are the ones that are able to achieve success.
   
Texaco was fined 176 million when it discriminated against its employees. It lost its lawsuit and had to compensate a staggering amount for their unethical practice. Mercury Finance overstated its profits and this eventually led to its losing  2.2 billion in stock almost overnight. Investors pulled out from the company when they found out about its unethical practices. The largest criminal fine ever paid was 100 million by ADM and that was for price fixing. The CEO of Genentech lost his job trying to obtain a 2 million loan as part of a business deal. The CEO of W.R. Grace lost his job on charges of sexual harassment. All these examples point to the fact that unethical behaviour costs you big time. If any company is found guilty of unethical behaviour, consumers, investors and even employees look at the company as disgraced. The fines, lawsuits and bad publicity hamper the companys performance. Investors stop investing, customers switch to more ethical companies to register their protest, employees wish to work for ethical companies, and the lawsuits are costs incurred (Cahn, 2008).

The Strategy of Good Ethics
Let us now look at how ethical behaviour helps a company. We know that an investor always looks at the track record of a company before investing in it. According to Verschoor, (2005), a study by Booz Allen Europe in 2003 that surveyed the top 150 companies in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, found that living the corporate values indeed pays off economically. It also benefits the company by enhancing the public image. A later study by Booz Allen reported that out of the leading outperforming companies, 98 of these include ethicalbehavior issues in their values statements compared to 88 of other public companies (Verschoor, 2005.) Another study titled Deriving Value from Corporate Values involved responses from 9,500 senior executives from 365 companies in 30 countries. These further strengthened the findings and concluded that strategic awareness and commitment to social and environmental issues does in fact bring greater success to the bottom line (Verschoor, 2005.) All these studies show clearly that companies with ethical practices are able to attract more investors and that their customers are more loyal to them.
   
The Australian Government (2007) issued the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, consisting of a series of guidelines made in accordance with the National Health and Medical Research Council Act 1992. This Statement replaced the 1999 National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans. Many of the Fortune 500 companies are seen as ethical companies. Their codes of ethics are role models for others. The companies that have adopted ethical practices are successful and are looked upon favourably by the governments, customers, investors and regulatory bodies. Of course, their ethical practices are not the sole reason for their success but the ethical practices do indeed help.

Microsoft (2010) now proclaims As a company, and as individuals, we value integrity, honesty, openness, personal excellence, constructive self-criticism, continual self-improvement, and mutual respect. HP says We conduct our business with uncompromising integrity. HP employees are expected to be open and honest in their dealings to earn trust and loyalty of others. Every employee adheres to the highest standards of business ethics and understands that anything less is unacceptable (Kegel, 2010). The way Johnson and Johnson solved its Tylenol issue is an example that is lauded and praised. It did what was ethical and the short-term loss they incurred then has now got converted into long-term benefits. The loyal customers they have gained after the Tylenol incident are a legion. Johnson and Johnson is a role model for any company that does not think that ethical behaviour would eventually pay off (Lama, 2001).
   
According to Wygal (2004), accountants and their profession have come under fire as a result of breakdowns and misdeeds in the financial reporting process. An apparent lack of ethical behavior exhibited by decision makers forms a core area of concern. The predominantly negative media coverage of the financial and accounting activities of Enron, Tyco, WorldCom, Adelphia, and such other U.S. companies has been exhaustive. One starting point in developing a case for public trust in the accounting profession is to consider how ethical perspectives have been breached in the past and how to avoid these violations in the future. The Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) Standards of Ethical Conduct for practitioners of management accounting and financial management convey how ethical behavior should be practiced in the profession. In these Standards, IMA has identified some of the areas of ethical professional conduct for its members as competence, confidentiality, integrity, and objectivity.
   
The Six Sigma business management strategy is built around implementing improvements within a business structure that not only improves the bottom line but the product as well. Six Sigma training understands the importance of having smooth running wheels in the best businesses of the world. Six Sigma not only puts high standards and ethics in your work force, but charts the progress, which ensures that the standards are being followed showing the loyalty and ethics you expect in all aspects of your company.
   
It is therefore clear that ethics pay off eventually. The main aim of any company is to make profits through sales to customers, and achieving financial stability or growth by using the investors money. Companies that have adopted ethical practices are in the good books of both investors and consumers. Ethical and moral behaviour by companies helps them in getting customers and relationships with customers that are bound to last a long time. The consequences of unethical behaviour can deter companies from behaving unethically. Cohen (2010) says that Drucker concluded that business ethics as we know today are not that at all. If ever business ethics were to be codified, Drucker thought they ought to be based on Confucian ethics, focusing on the right behavior rather than misbehavior or wrong doing.

Conclusion
Does ethical behaviour pay the companies back  Are ethical firms top performers These were the two questions that this study set out to answer.  From this analysis we come to the conclusion that ethics does indeed pay. The firms that are ethical are indeed todays top performers. Ethical behaviour helps firms in getting better investors and more loyal customers. Ethical behaviour helps one win in the long run. In the short run, unethical behaviour may indeed bring success, but that success is very short-lived and is not something that you can count on. Ethics is an integral part of all the companies that have achieved success.
   
Ethics is open to perception and is very subjective in nature. What is wrong for one may be right for another. Companies need to ensure a code of ethics and to inculcate it in all their employees. Companies need to train their employees about what decisions to take during ethical dilemmas. Formal training is required so as to ensure that the employees understand the importance of ethics as the employees have the responsibility of maintaining the goodwill of the company. The values that are to be inculcated from the code of ethics need to be followed by both superiors and junior staff members. The higher level management needs to ensure that they act as role models for their peers. Strict check is also required on the code of ethics being followed (Cahn, 2008). In the age of globalization where borders have shrunk and different cultures now inter-act, companies need to ensure that during ethical dilemmas their employees make the right decisions. The importance of ethics cannot be overemphasized it is what differentiates the long-term players from short-term players.

Before we talk about workplace ethics we must first understand what ethics is Ethics can be defined as the study of standards on which an individual terms anything good or bad, or right or wrong. Ethics guides a person about moral right and wrong doings. A person learns ethics from the very beginning of his life. If from the start a person is able to distinguish between right and wrong then only he can choose between legal and illegal practices in his adulthood. Someone who has always been indulged in illegal and immoral practices will think those activities as ethical and legal he will even surprisingly find ways to prove his point. Even though his logics and proofs will sound appealing for him and his followers but they will be void according to the ethical principles. Anything that is wrong according to ethics will always be wrong no matter what the case is. (Velasquez, 2005)

Now we will talk about ethics followed at workplaces. Workplace ethics basically deals with the activities that are being performed at the organization it covers activities that are being performed by both individuals that are working in the organization and by organization as a whole. Activities that are being performed by any one of them which are deviant to workplace ethics will be considered as immoral or illegal according to ethical code of conduct.

An individual working in an organization must have to follow the policies and procedures that are told by the firm. Employees main duty is to achieve the organizational goals and avoid any activities that may be hindering the movement towards the goal. Being unethical means doing the activities that will obstruct your movement towards the goal. (Velasquez, 2005)

In this essay , the problem given is related to company reimbursement policy. Reimbursement basically means compensating the person for the expenses heshe occurred. You compensate a person for any out of the pocket expense he incurs while performing his job. The activities which are compensated vary from taking clients on lunch or dinner, postage expenses, travelling for some business purpose, engineering expenses, giving perks to business clients etc. The law has made it mandatory that all those expenses which are necessary to incur for the job to be done will have to be reimbursed by the company. If the company does not reimburse its employees for the expenses they occur then the employees can file suit on the company and take the company to the court for the compensation of the damages that occurred to them as a result of non compensation from the company.

In the book Special Education and the Law A Guide for Practitioners, the author quoted a case related to reimbursement. In the case i.e. Michael vs. Burnswood Ltd. the employee filed personal expense in companys account. He went to casinos while his business trip and accounted it in the companys account. This expense was not in any way related to the business it was a personal expense so there was no logic behind filing it in companys account. The employee however claimed that since he went to casinos during the time of his business trip so it must be compensated by the company. The court law termed his claim void and he was penalized by both the court and the company for his unethical action. (Osborne, 2006)

In Luthan vs. Mahon, the employee filed his personal expense in the company account claiming that it should be paid by the company as it occurred during the course of his job. The employee on the business trip rented an expensive limousine whereas he could use get the same job done in an ordinary car so when the employee ask the company to compensate him for the rent of the luxury he incurred, the company refused him. The employee then filed a case against his employer which was later termed as void. (Suzanne  Tahan, 2007)

According to the problem given to us the employee has filed an expense report for a personal dinner which was not in any way related to the client. The problem given in the case which was very similar to the problems quoted in the cases above. It was employees personal expense and the company is not responsible to pay for this expense. The filing of the dinner as an expense is highly unethical step that has been taken by the employee. The question that comes to us now is that what action should be taken against the employee

When can either file a complaint against him, we can discuss in private with him about this problem or we just sit hand on hand and do nothing. The last option that is doing nothing will mean that not taking any action against the employee and compensating him for the dinner he had previously taken. If we will opt for the last option then it will encourage the employee to indulge in more unethical acts. On the other end if other employees will get to know about this compensation of unethical act then there are high chances that many of them will also do the same and will indulge in unethical activities, and the company will be ending up compensating them all for their personal dinners. So it is obvious that we cannot go for the do nothing option.

Now we are left with just two options filing the complaint and discussing it with the associate in private. First Ill discuss filing the complaint option. Filing of complaint means that the company lodges a formal documented complaint against the employee. Lodging of complaint can result in both positive and negative outcomes. Positive outcomes from the lodgment of complain will be that the employee against whom the complaint has been launched will realize his mistake, he will know that where he went wrong and did something unethical, this strict action from the company will notify everyone that the company in not sleeping and is keeping a check on everyone in the company, if anyone else will be indulged in such activities then he will surely refrain from such unethical practices in order to save his reputation and position in the company. On the other hand the negative outcomes can be hostile feelings against companys policies, the person against whom complaint has been launched will most probably get dissatisfied from his job, every now and then he will feel that he is being insulted and eventually he will end up quitting his job and the company will lose a valuable employee. Other employees may also feel that company is being way too much harsh on the employees this can cause a problematic situation for the company. Many workers can rise up against company and may go on strike or create problems.
Another alternative is to discuss the matter with the associate in private. This means that you call the employee who is caught guilty of indulging into unethical practices and explains him about his act. The employee in private will be told that how his practice will affect his and companys reputation if this fact leaks out. Obviously when other co-workers of that employee will get to know about his unethical act then they will develop a negative perception about the person that he will be unethical in other matters too, they will stop trusting the person and sooner or later everyone will think that the person is a fraud.
Talking to the person in private will have several positive and negative outcomes too. The positive outcomes can be like the person will not feel insulted if he is told about his act in private, the supervisor can persuade him more effectively if he explains him in person about his act, the person is most likely to realize his mistake and never commit it again.

But there is a loophole in this strategy there might be a chance that the person will overhear his supervisor and continue his unethical practices. He might think that the matter is just between him and the supervisor and he will soon forget about it. So if the person is of that mentality then this matter will be of no use.

Looking at all the options and by studying the cases from the books, I think that lodging a formal complaint will be a good option as it will be a standardized procedure of letting the authorities know about the unethical practices going on in the company and it will also serve as a example that if any other employee engages in the same behavior then he will be treated the same way. It will help the company to ensure an ethical environment all around the company which will beneficial for both the company and the employees.

This case analyses an organizations ethical dilemma about its duties towards the society and the humankind, and to the organization and its benefits. The manufacturing processes followed in the organization are compliant with the emission norms but there are better technologies available, which can reduce it, even further. The awareness of the benefits of the new technology and the cognizance of the repercussions associated with use of existing technology creates the ethical dilemma for the organization.

Injectoplast is a small plastic manufacturing company with clients across the Globe and the registered office at Kanpur, India. Injectoplast has its manufacturing base in India, situated close to the river Ganges. The emissions, as a result of the manufacturing process, are below the legally specified levels but the current advancement in the technology is expected to bring it down to even lower level. The emission levels of the factory is well in control and there is no dire need for adapting this new technology, however, the improvement in the living conditions of the life around that place shall be deeply affected by the decision made in this context. This can be considered as a case of virtue ethics, where the person has to think on the personal basis about the situation. Recently, there was also a report by the environmentalists of the region that if the emission levels remain the same in the river then the life of the river is at risk and so is the trade that is based on that. In such a case even if there are no environmental authorities charging the company at present time, soon there would be charges on the company and checks to regulate its activities. In this situation it is also likely that at that moment it would be hard to take manage the reputation of the company in the market. Hence, the dilemma is not just about the ethical behavior towards the environment and the society but also about the responsible behavior towards the reputation and the future of the company.

The organization needs to manage the benefits and the profits of the company along with the brand of the organization and indeed the responsibility of the organization towards the environment.

Ethical  Social Justice Issues Faced By the Organization
There is a variety in the type of issues which needs to resolve in this case. The issues are hinged on the financial benefits to the organization vis--vis the value of the brand. The long term objectives also need to be considered while basing the decision on quick benefits. Finally, the social obligations of the organization remains at the core of any decision making process designed to resolve the ethical conflict.
It can be argued that the emission norms of the organization are well within the legal limits. Moreover, there is no issue from the environmental authorities of the state on the present infrastructure that they are employing for the reduction of the emission levels to the lake. However, considering the social responsibilities of the organization towards the environment it is operating into, the lack of an immediate enforcement of the new technology may taint its brand value. This might trigger the people to question the management of the company on their responsibilities towards the environment they are operating into.

Then the last is, virtue ethics (Driver, J., 2001), the personal justification that the management needs to give to them about the decision that they take. The reason of Government not modifying regulations could be the lack of awareness from their end. But, as the organization is operating into this field since 1988, they are expected to be well aware of the amount of damage the current level of emissions shall cause to the river and the lifestyle of the people who depend on that.

Thus, the issue is not whether the organization is complying with the Government regulations or not. The primary concern here is whether the organization is concerned towards the people of the vicinity and what are the pro-active measure it is taking to prove its concerns for the population around.

Philosophical Theories Explaining the SocialEthical Issues
As per the managerial ethics there are two types of ethical situations that might be an explanation to the present situation. The first philosophical theory that might be taken into account, and shall have most relevance as far as business is concerned is the servant leadership theory (The Power Of Servant-Leadership Essays, 1998). This word was coined by Robert K. Greenleaf, who describes this as a situation where the organization is leading the masses by being a servant to it. This is also a case that has been very well described in the Bible but in terms of the family structure and the society. However, this has found application in the present corporate scenario, where there are many sectors of the organization which deal with the masses or many organizations which are actually into the service of the people. Here, the organization might not be in direct service of people, but the area of concern at present has to deal with the welfare of the people. This is responsibility that the Management is encountering towards the society and its welfare and hence it is needed that they take the decision in the favor of it. This becomes the foundation stone towards a better life and living space for the coming times. Also by taking this course they shall be saving their company from the undue rush that might be caused later.

The second theory that might indicate in the similar direction is the Virtue ethics. This is the justification of the decision to self as the present situation. This theory was first introduced by Aristotle that was elemental in bringing the respect of ethics in the person, and the development of the individual. Even though it is known that the ethics are bound to shift their paradigms as per the culture that is some things might not be unethical in some situation and can be in some. However, this is a case of moral ethics where the right and wrong is but dependent on the ideals of the culture.

Relation of the Situation to the Themes of Social Justice
Every ethical situation is so because of the effect it has on the society and the justice it deserves or given to it. In this case as well there is dimension of the social justice playing its part. The major four areas which decide the social justice are the human rights, equality, liberty and justice (Blowfield and Murray, 2008). In this case these themes are in function in the following ways. The human right is well understood in this case, as the practices of the organization shall effect the living situations of the people and the resources for their livelihood. The policies of the organization shall affect the environmental situations of the place and the decisions shall deeply affect the people. Hence, it tampers with their basic human rights in this case.

It is evident that the liberty of the people being affected by the organization and its decisions. They are hampering the resources of the people without their knowledge. Even though they are maintaining their standards as per the present rules, but they are well aware of the obsoleteness of their practices and the need for new measures to be taken in this account.

As far as justice is concerned, the organization would only be justified in its approach, if they consider the new technology over their investment and the budget of the company. They shall be taking care of the justice that they are bound to do the living beings and the source of resources that they themselves are using for their sustenance.

Summarize - Major challenges presented to the organization as a result of the ethical or social justice issues
Summarily, the organization faces following major challenges
Whether to upgrade the existing manufacturing process with the new technology and machines
How would organization justify its financial investment associated with the upgrade of the technology to its shareholders as the current emission norms are within the legal limits
How does the organization quantify the benefits associated with the new technology
How would the organization justify the damages associated with the use of existing technology
How would the organization convince the people around the area for the justification of the employing this technology in the first place

Recommendations for the Issues Faced By the Organization
In this situation of great dilemma, it is expected that the organization takes the best possible decision that suits the organization and its benefits and the society and its welfare. The time when the government shall realize the dilapidatedness of its policies and the requirement for the new rules it would enforce the use of the new technology. In that situation it would come as a sudden blow to the budget of the organization in order to keep its reputation. The financial investment that comes in this form takes more tools on the financial situation of the organization. In the present stage the organization has time and can plan the way the technology can be involved in their processes. They know that this would be inevitable hence it is best that they do it on their own terms and not wait for the sudden ring of the bell.

Also, it would add a feather to their cap once they get the new technology in their firm. As it is the organization will have to incorporate the new technology into its working sooner or later. This can be way to advertise about the ethical behavior of the company and the way it fulfills its duties to the society and the environment. Even, if it would be putting in money for the decision, this would get them the attention of the people and might be applauded for it as well. They can be the cursors to the revolution and hence put up an example to the other competitors in the area.

Taking up this step beforehand shall provide them with enough time to prepare for the investment in the terms of money. They can also decide to divide the load over the time or involve other investors in this scheme by luring them to the resultant fame by the taking up the decision.
 
This decision will not only be a solution to the problems of the organization, but also answer to the calls of the inner morality. It shall silence that voice as this is the decision that shall benefit the other people as well and you can truly be the leader by being the servant of the people (The Power Of Servant-Leadership Essays, 1998).

The Factors That Would Affect the Implementation
Every recommendation has to go through certain amount of resistance before it gets implemented. In the present scenario discussed it is very normal that there would be some factors that would be affecting the implementation of the recommended solutions. The biggest resistance would be from the finance department of the company as they would be directly affected by the decision. Since, we know that there is no need for the new technology at the present stage, and the company is in compliance with the guidelines laid down by the government, it is almost incomprehensible for them to understand the need to pit the budget of the company at stake.

However, we have already understood what effects this decision shall have on the reputation of the company and also the financial state of the organization. Hence the need of the hour shall be that they understand the considered points of the manager, and respond to the calls of the organizational ethics. Also, in the solution offered it is not merely the romantic thought of ethical behavior that is being catered to, but they are also taking into consideration the organization and other departments of the same.

Describe the outcomes you would expect if your recommendations were implemented
In this situation when the organization had to come up with a solution that satisfies the organization and its benefits and also takes care of its responsibilities to the society, it is not always needed that you give up the ethics that build your organization. In fact, in the present situation we have encountered that ethics management of the situation has only led us to the most profitable solution to the problem.

In the recommended way, it is expected that the firm shall be at par with the norms laid down by the government, in fact be an example to the others in the same business. They would be righteous in their way of work, and can also encash this righteous behavior by advertising it, making a place for themselves in the market and the consumers mind

International industries investment in the leisure and recreation industry includes hotels casinos and cruise ships. By diversifying their risk and maintaining vertical and horizontal linkages in the hospitality industry, the company is maximizing its profits and minimizing possible losses (Alexander  Sheedy, 2005). It will be able to book clients into their hotels, invite them to play at the casinos and take them on cruise trips around the world. These facilities will enable the firm to provide clients with a wholesome experience and focus on satisfying all their clients needs.  From a moral and ethical viewpoint, this venture poses no risk to the company and ends up adding value to their services.

A market exists for age restricted communities but the likely backlash from people offended by the rules governing such properties may ruin the reputation of the company (Lennon, 2008). This could precipitate boycotts of the companys properties and open the door to numerous lawsuits. One of the rules prohibits underage people from visiting and staying with relatives in these communities. In the event that the owner dies, the property cannot be transferred to the spouse if they are under the stipulated age. Such draconian conditions make the company an easy target for those opposed to such settlements (Hopkin, 2010). The moral and ethical considerations regarding such ventures make it an unwise investment.

Controlling all aspects of a business operation increases the risk of abuse of position and the likelihood of the company exploiting the consumer (Borodzicz, 2005). This business model maximizes profits in the hands of the owners and reduces overheads due to economies of scale. However the general public would consider the company mean spirited because of denying other market players an opportunity to share in the companys success and make money from partnering with it. From an ethical point of view, the company will be best advised to open up various distribution channels and invite businesspersons to manage them on the companys behalf.  This will ensure more people benefit from the companys operations.

Man stands supreme in the animal kingdom. Our ability to reason, evaluate and squirm at decisions which we deem unacceptable and unjustifiable is just one of the reasons why we are considered superior among other species. We are the only earthly species who experiences guilt and our ability to recognize the righteous path from that of the indecent one distinguishes us from all other creatures (Huntsman, 2005, p. 23). We may consider this our luck but at times it can be a misfortune especially when we are faced with a situation where there is no obvious right or wrong decision which we refer to as an ethical dilemma (Ghillyer, 2008, p. 9). Thus is the situation which Ephram Hutte faces.

Ephram Hutte is the head chef of Paris de Monde whose primary duty is to maintain and preserve the high standards of the restaurant which has gained an excellent reputation for over five years. It meant producing excellent meal at all cost no matter what the condition is. Unfortunately, he is faced with an ethical dilemma should he attend his daughters university graduation or should he work that evening to ensure that the restaurant he works for maintain its national reputation for quality food

25 per cent of the restaurants success depends upon the ratings of trade magazines which include Top Scoff, a premier Australian magazine that sells 150,000 copies annually. One of Ephrams friend gave him a tip that a representative from the said magazine company will make an unannounced visit to the restaurant in preparation for next years review edition. This implies that he should prepare an excellent meal which will once again put the restaurants position at the top most level. He alone has the capacity to do so because the assistant chef, who is also the owners son, has just recently entered the business and is still unfamiliar with French cuisines. Unluckily, this event will coincide with his daughters graduation whose educational struggle has also been the familys greatest endeavor. Briggite, her daughter, has suffered from polio during her childhood years which caused a physical disability on her part. It made her social interactions very limited which resulted to her losing her self-esteem and self-confidence. In the process he quit school at age 15. Fortunately time and full support offered by her parents helped her to pursue her studies and eventually graduate with honors from a university. Seeing her supportive parents in front of her graduation is believed to be the final step necessary to complete her lost self esteem and self confidence but not being able to share this success with her parents may trigger a relapse and undo everything that they have worked hard for. Ephram is now left in the middle. Where does his loyalty lie What is more important to him What ethical principle should he adhere to in addressing this conflict

Ethics is a discipline which consists of the examinations and evaluations of actions, social practices, institutions, and systems so we can determine the reasons for considering them as either good or bad (Duska, 2007, p. 3). It involves moral beliefs, a judgment about whether certain human actions, practice, institutions, or systems are right or wrong, which will definitely lead to an action, an activity or behavior that is deliberate resulting from careful consideration and performed by choice (Duska, 2007, p.4). Examination of actions will include answering several questions like Is the action good for me Is the action fair or just Have I made commitment, implied or Explicit (Duska, 2007, pp 18-25). Nevertheless, this methodology will only apply to clear cut cases and Ephrams case does not fall on this category. We need additional aid in trying to address his situation.

Ethical theories arise in order to resolve ethical dilemmas which include the case of Ephram. An ethical theory prescribes a principles that is to be given priority as the ultimate justifying reason for pursuing any course of action ( Duska, 2007, p.21). Since it is hard to weigh the consequences involved in the two choices it is inevitable to seek parameters which can further narrow our evaluation. There are four main ethical principles which could aid as in our ethical reasoning namely the Golden Rule, Virtuous Ethics, Utilitarianism and Universal Ethics or Kantian Ethics.

The Golden Rule rests on the principle that you should not do unto others what you dont want others do unto you (Ghillyer, 2008, p.7). It has other variations depending on the religious denomination one belongs to but ultimately it rests on the idea that you should treat others as you would also want them to treat you. Unfortunately, this principle will not aid us very much with the case of Ephram. Ephram would want to be given the freedom to attend to both obligations but that is impossible and no one can offer solution that will provide similar results. Moreover, deciding on how you want others treat you is very subjective and may lack a strong justification power.

Virtuous Ethics on the other hand is the concept of living your life according to the commitment to the achievement of a clear ideal which pertains to what sort of person you would like to become and how to go about becoming that person ( Ghillyer, 2008, p. 7). This ethical theory is grounded on the an ancient Greek principle that everyone should fulfill its potential  fulfill all that he could be ( Duska, 2007, p. 37). It rests on the acquisition of the excellent virtues through the formation of habit within the individual which will also aid us achieving our fullest potential. Such as knifes goal is to cut and this is best achieved by attaining the quality of being sharp, virtues like courage, wisdom, and temperance are major virtues that should be present to an individual as well for only in the acquisition of these virtues can he decide right actions. Nevertheless deciding what type of virtues to utilize in fulfilling ones desired goal in life poses a new problem.

There is another alternative which is provided by William Shaw in the presentation of this ethical dilemma which will readily be unacceptable by virtuous ethics. This includes pretending not to know that there will be an unannounced visit from Top Scoff and lying to his employer. Such an act will not be permissible in virtuous ethics because dishonesty is not a virtuous act and goes against excellence. Supporters of virtuous ethics only adhere to positive virtues and make no room for vices and dishonesty.

Man has different goals in life and he is also capable in achieving several potentialities. Ephram has a goal as a chef and that is to maintain the reputation of the restaurant which he himself has helped in achieving but he also has a goal of becoming the supportive father towards her physically disabled daughter. He has both commitments which he is obligated to fulfill towards both party. So it seems to me that Virtuous Ethics alone would not be the formula we are seeking to help us in addressing this ethical dilemma.

Utilitarianism is the ethical principle which is made famous by John Stuart Mill and gives priority to the concern for others and maintains that actions should be done which brings about the greatest good for the greatest number of people (Duska, 2007, p. 21). Business is an institution which provides goals and services for society. If we will consider utilitarianism as our ground for making an ethical decision regarding this matter then it will clearly state that Ephram should go to the restaurant and perform his responsibility as a chef. Furthermore, non-appearance would mean a decline on the restaurants rating and position in the French cuisine industry. It means a lower rating of profit for the coming year which may eventually lead to some employees being laid-off especially if the restaurants regular customers will believe the recommendation of Top Scoff. More people will be affected if he fails to show-up on that specific night. Apparently, utilitarianism will favor over Ephram going to the restaurant and fulfill his duty because it will benefit the majority.

Universal Ethics or Deontological Ethics rests on the principle of duty and the categorical imperatives.  These are actions which are taken out of duty and a moral obligation to a purely moral ideal rather than based on the needs of the situation, since the universal principles are seen to apply to everyone, everywhere, all the time (Ghillyer, 2008, p. 8). When Ephram took the job as a chef, he promised to do and fulfill all the responsibilities which pertains to this job and puts him under the obligation to fulfill it by all means even if it meant sacrificing his own personal wants and desires. He was hired by the employer because he believes that he is a true professional and will put his professional obligation in priority no matter what in support of philosophical ideas which pertains to fairness, rights and commitment. Aside from this responsibility, being the main chef of the restaurant puts him in an administrative position to carry out fiduciary responsibilities towards his subordinates. He has the implied responsibility of becoming a model that his subordinates will look up to thus no flaw in his professional character should be seen. These are the obligations which he accepted when he entered the job as a master chef. On the contrary, he also has an implied obligation towards his daughter. He has a natural obligation to provide her with everything she needs so she may have a fruitful and meaningful life in the future. This is the duty of a responsible father.

It seems to me that after a careful analysis of all four ethical principles we are still left with no clear decision regarding this matter. We are left on our own to decide which duty weighs more duty towards your employer or duty towards your daughter. We are left on our own to decide what counts as our clear ideal to become a highly respected chef or to become a responsible and supportive father. In cases where even ethical principles fail to provide us with a clear cut solution to the ethical dilemma, where do we turn to

Ethical reasoning is influenced by several factors. It is influenced by family orientation, culture, nationality and even our gender. What makes ethics complicated is it cannot be politically mandated and most of the time the decision is left on the individual alone ( Huntsman, 2005, p.24). Ultimately, we will not go to the letters inscribed on these ethical principles but look deep within our selves so we can define our priorities in life. What are the realistic consequences if Ephram will not attend the graduation of his daughter His daughter may indeed suffer a relapse and this may result to additional stress on his part. Instead of perceiving his job as a chef as a tool in providing his family his needs and happiness, he may start hating it. He may even end up hating and blaming himself which will not be very beneficial for the company in the long run.

One reason why business ethics is discussed in the academe is the belief that it has individual and social benefits. Some of this benefits include (1) long term profits (2) personal integrity and satisfaction for the management (3) honesty and loyalty from the employees (4) confidence and satisfaction from the customers ( Duska, 2007, p. 9). The way an employee views himself is vital to the organization to whom he is working for. A happy worker produces satisfactory product and services but a discontented and unhappy one will produce the opposite. I have reasons to believe that one of the reason why Ephram is doing great in the food and culinary is because he finds fulfillment in it. He sees himself growing together with the company because it not only supports his personal endeavors but his social needs as well. The moment he views work as a form of mechanism to provide only his monetary needs and deprive him personal fulfillment both as a father and a chef it will be the end of his career. This is the possible consequence if he will not attend his daughters graduation.

On the contrary, if he does attend the graduation of his daughter and his employer fails to realize and fully understand the ethical dilemma which he went through and fires him he is still left with his dream of achieving greatness in the becoming a chef. He can definitely become a chef in another restaurant and can start from scratch once again. He still has all the motivation and inspiration to fulfill his dream because he will never have to face his conscience every night and convince it that choosing his daughter over his job is more important. In fulfilling his duty as a father, he saves himself from the burden of facing his family especially his daughter everyday. It will never be a loss on his part but a loss for the company.

John Stuar Mill stated that humans are motivated by self-interest and it is this self-interest which will make commerce flourish ( Duska, 2007, p. 10). Egoism is the principle which gives priority to the self (Duska, 2007, p. 21). This principle is often misunderstood because others believe it is an abuse of ones freedom but if coupled with justifiable ethical principle like universal ethics and virtuous ethics it can be a theory which we can hold on to. We carry within our DNA structure animalistic instincts. We are acting hypocritically if we say that we do are not motivated by personal wants and desires. A deeper contemplation of our self will make us realize that most, if not all of our actions are driven by selfish interests. Ephram finds fulfillment in being a chef and in order to experience this he needs to give way to his daughters personal need. He needs to go to her graduation.  Let us not forget that motive for action is not synonymous to purpose of action. As Duska implied, I may give money to charity for the purpose of aiding the poor but my motive for doing so may be simply to impress my friends ( Duska, 2007, p.10). Ephram in like manner may go to Briggites graduation for the purpose of giving her the last push of support which she needs to continue with life but his ultimate purpose is to free himself from the burden that he placed his family on second priority which will eventually affect his work performance.

Professional duty does clash with personal duty at times but we should bear in mind that at the end of the day the only boss we will address to is our self. Did we satisfy it Did we give it the opportunity it needed to grow and reach its utmost potential Did we remain true to our commitment of reaching excellence We hold the answer but the quest of reaching the answer is indeed very difficult because it means letting go on some of the conveniences in life. We have within us a moral compass which can validate our decisions and hopefully we do not deceive our own self in the end.

Two standard ethical approaches are applicable in the analysis of this case utilitarian and Kantian (deontological). The utilitarian technique insists on maximization of good, and Kant argues for treating the others as an end and not simply as means. Googles ethical decision to stop censoring its Chinese language site at first agreed only with the Kantian approach, but its subsequent move conformed to utilitarian principle too.

China is the most populated country in the world, and perhaps the most rapidly developing economy of the present time. The rise of Chinas booming economy and the countrys emergence as the manufacturing hub of the world in the 21st century have been nothing short of spectacular. Peoples Republic of China had been a staunch communist country since its inception in 1949. Thereafter the country suffered for decades under the oppressive Maoist regime. It was only in the late 1970s, under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, that China started moving toward capitalism. Dengs policies of reform and openness put China back on the world stage, and Chinas economy started rebounding by becoming more and more modernized and liberalized.

There was a brief period in 1978-79, known as the Beijing Spring, when China experimented with complete freedom of speech and freedom of press. Unfortunately this did not last for long. Still, China seemed to make gradual progress in the direction of openness and freedom  until the Tiananmen Square Massacre of 1989 which took the entire world by shock. This event and the governments subsequent stance on it made it very clear that the Soviet-style oppressiveness of the Chinese regime would continue despite the fact that the whole world, including Russia, was moving in the direction of more freedom and democracy. Since the late 1990s, China has been rushing on the path of greater economic development by leaps and bounds, along with a few other major developing nations in Asia and elsewhere. However, the Chinese governments repressive approach to freedom of expression and human rights did not change substantially, even when so many other positive changes took place in the Chinese economy and society. And even the advent of the Internet  the epitome of free flow of information  did not do much to mollify the hardened stance of the Chinese government with regard to freedom of information. The Chinese Internet continued to be heavily censored, subjected to all kinds of restrictions and regulations.

Google is the Internet giant that has almost become synonymous with the Internet. For a few years the Chinese site of Google reluctantly abided by the governments policies of censorship, but then a time came when it could not take it anymore. The confrontation between Google and the Chinese government had to happen. The most interesting thing about this clash between Google and China, which was in headlines for quite some time recently, is that Googles fight is based on ethical grounds. Googles opposition to the mighty government of China has been widely hailed as a triumph of ethics over business considerations. In January, 2010, Google took a strong moral stand, declaring that it was no longer willing to censor its search results and might pull out of China if it came to that. Google has millions of users in China and if the company were to discontinue its China operations, it could lose a vast chunk of its Chinese customer base and huge sums of revenue along with it. Yet Google has been adamant not to give in to the unreasonable and unethical demands of the Chinese government, and was preparing itself to do whatever it deemed was the right thing to do, no matter what the consequences may be. Godaddy.com too followed Googles suit. Such resistance to Chinese governments policies were praised in some quarters.

The Chinese government is not going to change its policies overnight. But hopefully the decisions of corporations like Google and GoDaddy indicate a recognition that whats good for human rights and free speech is also good for their business. And if Chinas leaders recognize this, it may give them pause to rethink their strategy. (Butterfiled, 2010)

Overall, however, the reaction was mixed.

Before Google started its Chinese services in 2005, Google.com was accessible in China but in a limited way. The government used to restrict the search results heavily. Baidu.com was the more popular search engine in China. Even when Google.cn came, Baidu remained no.1, but Googles use has been growing. Google then expressed its willingness to voluntarily comply with the governments Internet censorship laws, thereby making the censorship of its search results self-imposed. This Google did thinking that it could better serve the cause of freedom of information by working along with the government rather than against the government. By voluntarily submitting itself to the Golden Shield Project, Google thought that it would have more bargaining power with the government in allowing relatively better access to the search results. Flouting the governments censorship policies, on the other hand, could result in serious disruption of Google services or severe degradation of the quality of Googles search results. Therefore though it was morally abhorrent to the Googles management to lamely give in to Chinese governments paranoid censorship policies, they had to do it for practical reasons. Still, Google was censured by the critics for doing so.

And then in January of 2010, Gmail accounts of a couple of Chinese human rights activists were hacked, as it was found out, by attacks originating from mainland China. Only the Chinese government had the motive to do so. Considering this act as a breach of the good will that Google was trying to foster between itself and Beijing, Google decided to quit the cooperation pact with the government. Google announced that it would stop censoring its search results and should overt or covert pressure mount on the company to continue censorship, the company would cease its operations in China entirely. The filtering of the results on Google.cn was disabled for a brief time subsequently, but was enabled again. There were no explanations given, but it would seem like Google was experimenting with the procedure.

Thereafter it came to light that the hacking of Google accounts by China was not an isolated event but was just a part of an extensive hacking operation, named Operation Aurora by the investigators at the cyber security company McAfee. Many prominent Internet companies such as Adobe, Yahoo and Symantec, as well as US defense installations such as Northrop Grumman were targeted over a period of several months in the second half of the year 2009. In fact, it is also well known that China keeps hacking Americas government and military installations, stealing data and technology. Therefore, in the wake of increasingly objectionable and dangerous activities of the Chinese government, Google had to reconsider its decision to cooperate with the it. That Google itself became a victim of a cyber attack by the Chinese government changed the way Google looked at the situation.

At that time Google had an ulterior plan which was not revealed. The company only stated that it would overcome the problem of censorship without going outside the legal framework. Now, in China it was not possible lawfully to do away with censorship. What Google said made sense only after it made the move. From March 22, 2010, Google began rerouting all the traffic coming to Google.cn site to Google.com.hk, i.e., Google Hong Kong. Hong Kong is part of China and yet it operates within a separate judicial framework. Its judicial power is not subject to most of Chinese laws (Helft, Barboza, 2010).  

By doing this, Google has successfully solved a big problem, in fact the question arises why it could not do so much earlier on itself. This simple move by Google also helped it to extricate itself from a potential ethical quandary. Because when Google announced that it was likely to stop its services in the Chinese language, people began to ask what would happen to millions of Internet users in China who could be left with only state-controlled media and state-controlled Internet.

Googles closure of Google.cn would leave the internet in China almost entirely dominated by local companies. That helps the Chinese governments efforts to control information, because it can more easily control local companies, but it means foreign participation in one of the fastest-growing parts of Chinas economy will be limited, and it leaves Chinese users increasingly isolated. (Chao, Worthen, 2010)

This was the irony of the situation Google was contemplating to pull down Google.cn for ethical reasons, namely, depriving people of right information or abetting in the spread of disinformation by censoring the Internet is ethically unacceptable but if it proceeded with its proposal it would be instrumental in bringing about more darkness into the already bleak Internet scene of China. Googles move away from China could in fact have many more repercussions too. It could, for example, send a signal to other foreign Internet companies wanting to come to China that this country is an inhospitable place to work from. In all, the implications for an average Chinese Internet user who seeks to browse Internet for learning and knowledge would be severely disadvantaged. Internet in China could end up becoming Chinternet, markedly different from the global Internet. The regular prominent global Internet sites and services such as Amazon and MSN Messenger are being less and less used in China, and are giving way to indigenous substitutes. Yahoo and Ebay have already exited the scene. Facebook is blocked in China. Though MySpace China is operative, it is less popular than a Chinese social networking site.

China is the largest Internet market in the world, with about 400 million users, and with a quarter million new users being added every day. One of the major purposes of the Internet is to bring the world together, but if the largest Internet base in the world is being increasingly isolated with the main body, then this severely affects the integrity and rationale of the Internet itself. Googles exit from China, if carried out, could start trends that do not bode well for the future of the Internet. Besides, Googles clash with the Chinese government was also much politicized, and it marked another blow to the already strained U.S. Sino relations. The political relationship between the U.S. and China, the current military superpowers of the world, is a delicate one and if it deteriorates further, it could have grave consequences for the entire world. Event the Third World War cannot be ruled out. And if any such thing were to happen, Google would have contributed to it. Therefore Google appeared to the entire world to be in a complex ethical dilemma, even as it was holding serious talks with the Chinese government in the weeks leading up to its March 22 move. On the one hand, it is a matter of principle for Google not let its search results be heavily censored, a principle which it could put aside for sometime but not for long. On the other hand, if it left China just like it said it would, some very undesirable consequences could follow which would not be good either for China or for the world.

It was a classic ethical dilemma. The situation that Google was in was not unlike the one the U.S. Treasury was in during March of 2008, when it was about to bailout a sinking Wall Street giant, Bear Stearns. This move was a blow to the much-cherished basic principles of American capitalism. And yet the Treasury chose to intervene, because if it did not, Bear Stearns was so deeply interconnected with the rest of the firms on the Wall Street that if it went out of business it could take down a whole lot of firms with it, and the effect could cascade. There was clear and present moral hazard in the Treasurys move and yet the bailout was implemented because the whole economy would be in jeopardy if it was not. Similarly, if it had no alternative, Google should have compromised on its principle and continued its China operations bearing the burden of censorship. But fortunately, Google had an easy option out, which was to move its base to Hong Kong. Googles move has angered Chinese officials, and may possibly escalate the conflict in the near future however, at the date of this writing, the latest news is that Googles relations with China appear stable. (AFP 2010)          

To sum up the ethical aspects of the situation, Googles decision to stop censoring anti-Chinese government and potentially anti-Chinese government information on the web can be considered to be based on a Kantian approach to ethics. It kept the interests of the Chinese Internet user, who has the right to information, in mind  over and above its own business interests. Google was wiling to sacrifice huge amounts of revenue, and give away its business share in the Chinese market to local companies, all for the sake of a principle. Google treated the typical Chinese customer as an end, and not simply as a means to promote its own business. Hence Googles move was widely applauded in the press, though many had some reservations too. Googles decision not to censor information, however, did not necessarily stick by the utilitarian criterion of morality, and in fact it did not even fulfill the Kantian criterion fully. Googles decision not to censor its search results shows its intention to respect the Chinese Internet users right for information, in theory but by pulling away from the Chinese market it could further ruin the Chinese Internet users chances of accessing better quality information. And it certainly seemed like if Google stopped censoring its results, it would need to pull away sooner or later.

By resolving this situation on March 23, 2010, by starting its Honkong-based search engine, Google could keep its Chinese language services up while at the same time not censoring information. This way, many untoward consequences of its original decision would be averted. This is the ideal solution which respects the right to information of millions of Chinese Internet users, both in theory and in practice and maximizes good in other ways too. However, the Chinese government will not accept defeat so easily and the fight between good and evil (Google and the Chinese government) is still on.