Ethics

In the given scenario the characters are using the agent-focused morality kind of ethics and utilitarianism by analogy. Briefly, the agent-focused morality can be explained in the sense that persons act the way they do, based on a justification that these are their natural instincts, as human beings. Utilitarianism on the other hand relates the action in terms of the consequences as measured by the goods or values. In this case, there is the application of the agent-focused morality because the senator threatened to divulge the chairpersons alleged scandal in hopes of passing the bill that would benefit a lot of people. The senator was only human in doing what might be viewed as an improper act in hopes of obtaining a better result for the majority. The utilitarianism has application because there is the goal of delivering better tax treatments for the people which may be viewed as goods for the people to utilize.
    The ethical theory adopted by the parties in this case is the consequentialist theory which provides in essence that as long as the results are good, even if the means by which it was achieved was bad, the act would still be categorized as good. The improper action that the senator did was to blackmail the chairperson regarding a matter relating to the latters personal life. The senator did an unethical act of threatening to divulge a secret of the chairperson in order to get his bill approved. The benefit that thousands of workers would obtain from the correction of tax equities is considered as the good result achieved through the bad act.
    There is no perfect person or situation in the world. If given a choice, I would do what the senator has done exactly the same way. Assuming that there is no other way by which the bill could be passed into a law, the commission of the blackmail was nothing compared to the possible suffering that thousands of workers would have to go through if the bill was not passed.

Ethics are the norms or morals that guide the actions of people in the society. Consequentilist theory is a moral theory which holds that the consequence of any action guides one to determine whether the action is right or wrong. A morally right action is one that produces a good outcome or consequence (William, 2001). This view is often expressed as the aphorism which means that the end justifies the means. Thus the focus is on the consequence of an action.

Following the increase in lumber prices due to Afghanistan and Iraq war, the company may decide to use substandard materials in order to offset the increase in lumber prices. The consequence of the action is that, they are not going to experience a loss in doing the work thus a happy end. According to the consequentialist theory, the action is morally right since it promotes good to the company, of not going at a loss. It is thus ethical.

A customer may on the other hand decide to hold the contractor to the original bid after unplanned for increase in lumber prices. This would definitely cause a great loss to the company.  If the customer is Donald Trump, who is a wealthy man, it would not be ethical. The idea behind consequentialist theory is to promote either happiness or sadness to the party involved. The question is will Donald Trump feel happy for not having to spend more money The answer is obviously no. Because he has a lot of money and the small amount of money he would gain for this action will not make him happy. The result of his action will not lead to happiness as compared to a person who does not have plenty of money. The latter will tend to appreciate the amount since it makes a difference to the amount heshe has. Consequentialist theory says that an action is ethical if it promotes happiness which it does not in this case.

Philosopher John Locke argues out that the rules of morality aim at insuring a decent, comfortable existence of all persons. He defends the sanctity of the individual and individual pursuits. According to him, the end of morality is set by God. His consequentialism concerns only the advarcement of that end. He says that men judge the most considerate moral Good or Evil of their actions since they like to procure them happiness or misery from the hands of the almighty.

Locke would have solved the above problem differently from the consequentialist theory. Does the action of contractor to use substandard materials ethical If he does this, it would be promote happiness to the contractor but the customer would not be happy. To ensure a comfortable existence of the two parties involved, the action should promote happiness in both parties. The action by the contractor to use substandard materials is thus not ethical, according to Locke.

The idea of the customer holding the contractor to the original bid even after unplanned for increase in lumber prices is also not ethical according to Locke. This is so because, the action would lead to the happiness of the customer and the contractor would not be happy because of the loss it has encountered. Locke as explained before advocates for the happiness of all persons involved.

The main difference between the consequentialist theory and Lockes view is that Locke emphasizes on happiness of all parties involved i.e. the customer and the contractor. The consequentilist theory on the other hand views the consequences of the action to the individual doing the action that is if it promotes good to the contractor in the first case, then the action is morally right, if in the second case, the action promotes happiness to the contractor then it is ethical.

On the other hand, the customer will be happy or rather advantaged since heshe does not need to spend any more money. The money paid to the contraction will remain constant despite the increase in lumber prices. The action hence, according to the consequentialist theory is ethical. This is so because the consequence of the action by the customer leads to happiness.

In summary, an action by an individual to solve a problem heshe is encountering can be interpreted to be either right or wrong depending on the theory heshe uses, as exemplified the above situation.  

The question posed, presumes that it is ethical to have standing armies and that it is ethical in any sense to use war as a means to settle political disputes. Without delving into the arguments against war as an ethically justifiable means, the question can be reframed in a way as to render those arguments of little importance. If we had to train our armies, to combat space aliens, then in a very real sense, consequentialist theory holds true and becomes more of a mandate. If faced with the eradication of a species, in this sense, the human species, any means, regardless of how crude or inhumane become justifiable, as the outcome of not doing so, would insure the whole sale destruction of the species. It is in this sense, that one argument of justifiability comes into view If the consequence is the preservation of the species, not just a way of life, then any and all actions must be taken in support of that outcome.
     The ends justify the means, has become an often touted by line however, this is too often used to justify cruel and bazaar behavior. In the question posed is it ethically justifiable to subject solders to simulated torture in order to increase their respective tolerance of torture if captured, can be justifiable only in the sense, if they (or we) were combating non-human enemies. If the enemy is another human army, then the arguments against war and standing armies applies. However, in the case posed above, then any action, which would insure the survival of the species becomes justified including simulated torture.
Consequentialist theory states in part The value of an action derives entirely from the value of its consequence. It is with this idea that the preservation of the human species would warrant most if not all actions. The value of continuing survival,  which for the most part is a human mandate, clearly makes all actions in this light reasonable. Additionally, simulated torture in this case becomes a minor action, when considering the total destruction of the human race speculating for a  moment, I could see far more grievous actions being taken, but still justifiable under this absolutist scenario. It is with this idea, and the situation stated above, that torture becomes justifiable and perhaps necessary when faced with a dire consequences of non-action.  As a concluding note, reframing the question in this sense, renders traditional arguments against war moot though, I could see some arguments coming to light if in fact we as a human species were to go to war with an alien species.

The central theme of Aimes book revolves around the practice of applying and understanding the situations that provided for colonialism to occur. It provides readers with the capacity to gauge not only how it has created inequality and discrimination, it also became the catalyst for the formation of a new perspective towards the domination and perfection. Here, Cesaire speaks to his readers as an observant who analyzed the conditions and outcomes of European colonialism as it applies to the current conditions shaping society.
    One important analogy made by Cesaire in his book revolves around the conditions of how European colonialism impacted the rise of further atrocities and challenges in Europe. He then correlates these with the Nazi government. He argues that this situation both exemplify the reactions made by Hitler and the Third Reich concerning perfection and the consequence for the European powers who were subjected to such realities. These in turn connotes the lesson of implying the outcomes of such atrocities and how it can be given back.
    Alongside the theme presented in his book, Cesaire also tries to point out the European colonialism and the responses made by Hitler and the Nazi government. Here, he was able to locate and showcase corresponding opinions on key issues that are prevalent between the two. It continues to embark readers towards the sentiments of a man who was subjected into such system and became an important catalyst in clamoring for change.
    In the end, the book provides a challenge among countries and states concerning the application of colonialism. For his part, he still believes that there still remain challenges that correlate with the system and adhering to the conditions of inequality and domination. It is through this that he urges the public to continuously keep an eye and be aware of such realities that can happen.

This book explores on the culture, tradition, ideologies, beliefs and practices of Judaism. Ancient Israel has been defined by the dominance of this religion. Its history has been as rich as the tradition which surrounds it during its establishment. The book provides a comprehensive account on the religions literature, tradition as well as its roots and the significance it poses in the contemporary society. Some of the major points discussed in the book were the ideals of the Passover, Rosh Hashanah, Reform Judaism, Prayer and Community (Neuser i). For someone who has already established a strong interest and curiosity on Judaism, this book serves a very helpful purpose. In the first few chapters, Judaism was defined right to its very core. Its core principles and beliefs were tackled and this aided in a more in-depth understanding of the religion. Its development over the years was also traced in line with Israels rich and dynamic history. On the latter part, the unique and distinct principles were also discussed as well as their impacts and significance in the contemporary society. The collective behavior and attitudes of Israelites were also explicated in relation to Judaism. Certain customs and traditions were referred to in explaining the lifestyles and practices of Israelites. The general impression on the Jewish community was also tackled. In this part, several notions as well as misinterpretations on the Jewish traditions were explicated in line with Jews communal objective of eradicating discrimination and racism against their culture. The book was filled with comprehensive definitions and explications of Jewish terms, beliefs and practices that make people more aware of the real Jewish tradition.
Judaism has also been perceived to be very verbal and expressive about their views on several societal matters. Over the years, Judaism has been very active in pushing forth the importance of laws and commandments. Just like in any other religion or philosophy, Judaism is also a religion which is dependent on commandments and sacred rules. The existence of these laws was said to be of utmost importance in this religion since laws are being considered as a way of displacing the prophecies (77).   The Ten Commandments lay down the basic principles of the holy way of life , according to the popular Jewish belief (77). This implies that this set of 10 rules are being considered as Jewish peoples guide to being close to God, which appears similar to those of other religions commandments purpose.  The Jewish notion of God was also portrayed. Just like in Catholicism, Jewish believe that there can only be one God. This book explicates how solemn and how earnest Jewish people are in terms of praising God. Prayer is the most significant practice in the Jewish tradition. This book emphasizes the importance of this practice and its significance in strengthening Jewish peoples spirituality. Aside from this, the book also tackled different issues concerning the history of Judaism. Firstly, the book explicated on the formation of normative Judaism. It was interesting to note that this change was roused by the conflict in stories and teaching during the earlier parts of the history of Judaism. The point of the transformation centers on the fact that the insiders during those times were already experiencing conflicts in terms of stories and narratives. Because of this, a more stable and defined structure and organization of Judaism emerged. Aside from this a lot of comprehensive discussion on the other developments in the structure of Judaism was also featured in this book. And all in all, this can indeed be considered as one of the most helpful tool in having a good grasp and understanding of the Judaism as a religion and a tradition.
Christianity, by Keith Ward
Christianity is one of the most dominant religion and philosophy in the world. Keith Wards book entitled, Christianity A Beginners Guide, takes a reader to the world of Christianity where teachings, scriptures, practices and beliefs about Jesus Christ rule. Although Christianity centers on one supreme personage, which is that of the Jesus Christ, its ideal as a whole appeared somewhat vague and encompassing to a lot of people and even to the author himself. Although Christianity has been a very challenging ideal to explicate for a lot of thinkers, Ward chose to define it through the distinct and interesting values, practices and beliefs that it holds. Hence, Christianity was explicated in this book through these terms. Ward suggests that a reader can never get a full grasp of the broad ideal of Christianity in one sitting however, he notes that through this book, readers could get a sufficient level of awareness and understanding about the very interesting religion and philosophy of Christianity.
The books starts off with the core belies of Christianity. Firstly, there is the undying belief of divine creation. Christians believe that it was God who created the universe (Ward 7). This appears to be the most important in all the Christian beliefs. Because of this notion, the personage of God is being built up the most supreme, intelligent and powerful being above everyone and everything else in this world. Christians were also known over the years to be one of the strongest contenders of the scientific or the Darwinian view of creation. The book features the arguments that Christianity teaches that support the claim that the universt was never and will never be self-existent. It was a stable and consistent Christian belief that God will always be above everyone and everything else, and that He will always remain as the most implicative and powerful force. Ward was also able to capture how challenged the Christian notion of creation has been through the years. However, it was also shown that despite these arguments and challenges, Christianity never failed to stand firm with its beliefs and principles, which proved how strong and stable an institution  it has been through the years.
Aside from this, the book also features the popular Christian notion about evil and th soul. According to ward, believing that the world was created by an unparalleled force like that of the supreme and divide ability of one God, is to also consider a dynamic creation. This means that the world is created with two side, goodness and evil. The evil in the society has been the most popular contention of the Christian belief. And over the years, just so people would understand the nature and implications of evil, it has already been tackled by a lot of Christian narratives and scriptures. But aside from the concept of evil, one of the most distinct ideal in the Christian tradition was the concept of human soul. Ward had n interesting way of introducing this part of the book. According to him, although humans dwell only on a small and humble part of the universe, the considerably human brain appears to be the most complex object ever encountered by men. Ward considers the idea that there has got to be something about human beings that enable them to comprehend and understand the complex and convoluted ideas and phenomena around them. But he also considers the fact that the human brain is a mere piece of mass therefore, he goes with the Christian ideal of a soul which takes the place of a stronger and more complex aspect of human existence. It can be observed that a lot of other religions also consider a concept of human soul. However, Ward suggests that Christianity has a different way of seeing the human soul since the religion regard the soul as the real connection of humans to spirituality. Hence, the physical human body is but a piece of matter a person shall leave behind after he or she dies. These are just some of the most interesting features of the book. But aside from this, it also tackles a lot of stirring issues that also help people understand Christianity better.
Islam Religion, History and Civilization, by Seyyed Hossein Nasr
According to Nasr and to all the other Muslims in the world, Islam is both a religion and a civilization (Nasr vii). It appears a historical reality that extends to over fourteen centuries of human existence and geographical being in wide areas of land reaching over African and Asian countries and even to some parts of Europe. Islam was seen with a dynamic and rich culture and tradition. Their colorful culture has inspired and stirred a lot of other culture over the years. However, it cannot be denied that Islam has had a negative impression from different individuals because of its association to wars and violence. And this book appears to be a helpful guide and reference in understanding what Islam is really all about.
The book first tackles all the basic principles and ideals of Islam in the beginning chapters. It defined Islam as a religion which is apparently different with Islams definition as a civilization and philosophy. The book presented the strong and stern approach of the Islam religion. It says that
 Islam considers itself as the last major world religion in the current history of humanity  and believes that there will be no other plenary revelation after it until the end of human history and the coming of the eschatological events described so eloquently in the final chapters of the Quran.  (2-3)
The book emphasized on the individuality that is being promoted by the Islam philosophy. In Islam, the spiritual aspect of the world only centers on the principles and prophecies being told by the holy book, Quran. Their world was depicted to be very reserved and conservative in terms of being opened to foreign ideologies and concepts. The book emphasized on the significance and importance of each Islamic principles and their implication on the day-to-day lives of people.
Aside from these concepts, the book also holds a lot of interesting revelations about the different dimensions of Islam. In the middle part of the book, it was revealed that Islam was never a single religion and body of philosophies and knowledge. It actually branches out to a lot of different dimension that are defined by the distinctive and individualistic Islamic traits and principles. Also, the dynamic and colorful history of Islam was also depicted in this book. From the earliest prophecies up the developments that established the principles and institution of the Islamic belief, the book provides a comprehensive trace of the milestones that defined the history of Islam as a religion and as a powerful civilization. Together with the discussion of the Islamic history. the major principles and schools of thought that rooted from Islam were also tapped. All of these theories and perspectives were discussed in a comprehensive way. It can be observed that usually, theological concepts and perspectives delineate the most sensitive, intriguing and revealing ideals. This can also be the reason why a lot of thinkers often have difficult times in presenting these views. However, with Nasrs case, every piece of Islamic perspective and ideology was discussed in detail without hesitation. Every piece of information was presented without any touch of controversy. But furthermore, what appears interesting to note about this book is how it presented the impacts and significance of Islamic principles in the contemporary world. The author emphasized on the idea that Islamic ideologies will always dominate the world in any condition. He suggests that Islamic ideals shall never age and will extend up to the last generation of human existence. Towards the last parts of the book, it was told how Islam was able to survive amidst the turbulent challenges imposed by the naturally difficult world. The stand of Islam in the modern world was also presented which clearly depicted that through the years, Islam was able to stand firm to its principles and teachings. Apart from this, it was also interesting to see how Islam was able to preserve and protect its rich and conservative culture.
Imagined Communities Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, by Benedict Anderson
Nationalism is one the most significant aspects in keeping and preserving a nations identity. Wherever in the world, nationalism has been one of the most powerful forces that either promotes peace or revolutions. Due to peoples strong adoration to their national identity, national distinctiveness is being promoted, however, ideological clashes also tend to become more heightened. The concept of nationalism can be regarded as universal. Any where in the world, people can easily talk and explicate about the ideal of nationalism. However, it is the historical root of nationalism which appears to need some in-depth scrutiny. This is where this book of Benedict Anderson focuses. It talks about nationalism both in the historic, sociological and political perspectives. It can be assumed that people already have a basic knowledge of what nationalism is however, Andersons work provides sufficient information regarding the root and true nature of nationalism.
In the first few chapters, the history of the nationalism ideal is being discussed. Its cultural roots was also explored in order to discover other possible venues where it originated. According to Anderson, a lot of studies have already explored on the notion of nationalism. However, not all studies explored on it to its roots and core. Hence, this book tried to explore on the unchartered areas of nationalism which people has to know about. Firstly, Anderson suggested that nationalism possibly had an economic origin. The author notes,
 The revolutionary vernacularization thrust of capitalism was given further impetus by three extraneous factors, two of which contributed directly to the rise of national consciousness.  (Anderson 25)
This presents a direct relationship which can easily make people assume that it was indeed the economic ideal of capitalism which brought about the nationalistic spirit among people. Aside from this, reformation was also seen as a probably root of nationalism. The author notes that reformation in Europe has been a great catalyst for major changes and development. These changes and developments encompassed a lot of aspects in the society such as religion and politics. Also the reformation also posted a significant effect on the faith of people to the oneness of their nation. The reformation was also said to have build up the sense of unity and national stability towards the end of the reformation process.
Aside from the root and history of nationalism, the thinkers who served as the pioneers of this ideal were also discussed. These philosophers were seen as the ones who made the ideal of nationalism more comprehensible to people. Because of these pioneers, the wide understanding and awareness of the ideal of nationalism was achieved, and its essence was soon seen to penetrate within every persons consciousness. The relationship between nationalism and imperialism was also tackled. In a lot of instances, these two concepts have been misinterpreted. But this book emphasizes on the gap and distinction between the two which aids in eliminating any faulty understanding. Also, the book was able to tackle a lot of interesting ideals and issues like patriotism and racism. These concepts or issues have been typically associated to the ideal of nationalism. And this book was able to discuss and explicate the relationship between these concepts as well as their significance and implication in the society today. The author was also able to give a current look at the ideal of nationality. It was interesting to learn how the ideal of nationalism evolved through time. And through this book, it was also fascinating to learn how peoples perception on nationalism has also been altered over the years. Although the book made mention of some technical and barely understandable terms on politics and philosophy, it still appears as one of the most comprehensive accounts on the history and development of the nationalistic spirit.
Discourse on Colonialism, by Aime Cesaire
Colonialism is one of the most studied and explored ideal in the world history. It has already made a lot of nations superior and a lot of nations back lagging in terms of scope and territorial strength. In Aime Cesaires work, Discourse on Colonialism, this ideal was discussed and explicated. The work starts off with the explication of the primary movers and catalysts of colonialism. The author decided to introduce the ideal of colonialism by tackling civilization. The author notes,
 A civilization that proves incapable of solving the problems it creates is a decadent civilization. A civilization that chooses to close its eyes to its most crucial problems is a stricken civilization. A civilization that uses its principles for trickery and deceit is a dying civilization.  (Cesaire 1)
Through these descriptions the author seems to delineate the traits and characteristics of a civilization which may or may not overcome colonialism. Colonization was defined in the article as neither a an evangelization nor a philantrophic enterprise. The author clearly suggests that colonization has a lot of similarities with  the adventurer and the pirate, the wholesale grocer and the ship owner, the gold digger and the merchant  as well as  appetite and force  (2). In looking at this logic, it is easy to assume that he author thinks that colonization has a lot to do with superiority. This goes to show that in looking at colonization, there will always appear to side, the inferior which is characterized by the adventurer, the wholesale grocer, the gold digger, and appetite and the superior which has been compared to the pirate, the ship owner, the merchant and force. Through these explications, Cesaire was able to provide some useful insights that easily gives people an idea as to what colonization is. Although the article possessed a more formal tone and approach   considering that it is a discourse   the point of the authors ideas were nonetheless clear and were not blurred up by the fancy and florid terms associated in the text.
The author also discussed peoples most common and typical impressions on colonization. It can be observed through the information delineated in this work that the most common impression to colonization is that it is a negative and suppressive ideal. Most people tend to look at colonization as a manifestation of greed and hunger for power and superiority. This was attributed by the author to the presented events of colonization in the world history. Most of these events were portrayed having the colonizers as villains who took away the power and resources of the colony. Most of these events were portrayed in a such a way where the sentiment of the colony was the most significant focus.
One interesting feature of this article was how the author tried push through the understanding of the ideal of colonization. According to Cesaire, people must scrutinize  how colonization works to decivilize the colonizer, to brutalize him in the true sense of the word, to degrade him, to awaken him to buried instincts, to covetousness, violence, race, hatred, and moral relativism  (2). The author also notes that in understanding the true nature and implications of colonization, people must also understand the factors and catalysts that brought colonizers to that states of formation. The main ideal that the author points out in this discussion is the function of aristocracy and superiority. It cannot be denied that the development in terms of technologies and scope has not been equally dispersed and distributed in all nations. While some nations continue to rise in terms of wealth, power and territory, some remains back lagging. Because of this, scarcity and inequality worsens. One of the main promises of colonization is a communal benefit. It promises both sides of a kind of benefit they can acquire. However, instead of alleviating the situations of the back lagging nations, colonization appears to further push them down beneath the more powerful and influential colonizers.
Torture Is a Moral IssueChristians, Jews, Muslims, and People of Conscience Speak Out, by George Hunsinger
This work by Hunsinger is a collection of views from scholars, activists, military officers, and religious leaders in line with their movement against the torture and violence being practiced in the American war on terror. In this book, torture has been regarded as a serious moral issue that continues to hunt the US interrogation in Iraq. This issue has put a lot of people into states of fear and dread since a lot of dreadful events are already springing from this moral dilemma. Several background materials such as first hand accounts of torture experiences at was are featured in this book. These information build up the reality that this book depicts that relates to the real face of war and violence.
The war in Iraq has been debated and argued upon by a lot of Americans. A lot of people has already questioned the morality and social responsibility that lie in this revolution. A lot of people has already argued that violence and atrocity is never necessary to promote peace. Instead of promoting order, these acts were considered to be the worst catalyst for hatred and animosity between nations. However, the political and military perspective prevails in the government, and this argument kept going on in the American society up to this date. This debate has also been feature in this book. The core discussion revolves around the Christian, Jewish and Muslim views on the currently heightened violence practiced by the American military troupes. The book features the varying views and perspectives on the nature and of violence as well as on the impacts of this in the moral and spiritual stability of the American society.
Aside from the different philosophies of different religious institutions, different views of different thinkers were also tackled. First, Kenneth Roth delved on getting away with torture. The author notes that it is simply difficult to find justification in torture (Hunsinger 3). Torture has always been one of the most dissolute ideals in ever created by humans. For years, this has been associated to punishment and damnation that are evidently contrasting ideals to peace, as what the military troupe of the United States was pressing about their attacks in Iraq. Aside from the discussion of the nature of torture, several real life accounts of torture were also presented in the succeeding chapter of the book. In this part, it was interesting to know about the unbelievable yet real tales of torturous acts that real people went through. In this part of the paper, readers are being introduced to the real face of torture that has destroyed lives and has put a lot of people in states of inconceivable pain and agony. The succeeding discussions finally featured the varying views of religious institutions in this issue. These thoughts carry different moral and spiritual roots that clearly reflect the foundations of their core principles. Although the Christian, Jewish and Muslim views on the nature and impacts of torture may appear to vary in some extent, they come one in delivering the ideal that torture is not at all necessary in promoting peace. Having it associated with several crimes have already been very disturbing, and to have it related with countries strategies in achieving peace and order will already be too perturbing. This book opens the ideal of torture in two equally discussed perspectives. The first perspective tells the cry of the society that torture is the evil that destroys the moral stability of a civilized and spiritually guided society. However, on the other hand, this book also discuss the US military troupes ideal that some people are just too full with atrocity themselves that only violence can also stop them. Whichever between these two arguments make more sense was left on the judgment of the reader of this book. What the book displaces is that torture has become a serious moral issue already that currently needs attention in order to prevent more serious societal dilemmas.

Human cloning can be identified as the creation of genetically identical copy of a human, human cell, or human tissue. More lightly, it can be taken as the artificial process of making a genetic twin of a person. It involves the creation of hereditarily identical person either living or dead. A clone is an animal who is genetically identical to its donor. It is carried out by the substitution of the cell nucleus with its DNA into an egg cell in a way that effective fertilization can take place. Human cloning can either be natural or artificial. Naturally, there is the existence of identical twins whose cloning occurs during the natural process of reproduction
(Baird, 2002).
Therapeutic cloning, also known as artificial cloning entails cloning a creature with the intent of harvesting either stem cells or organs from that creature, mostly for medical use. In this case, the nucleus of a cell donated by a person would be transferred to an egg mother cell (an oocyte), the embryo would then be grown to generate stem cells which could then be induced to form the type of cell or tissue required for medical purposes (Childress, 2003). 
There is another cloning known as replacement cloning, currently existing only theoretically, which would involve the replacement of seriously damaged, failed, or failing body tissues through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant. The most commonly employed technique in Human Cloning is the Somatic cell nuclear transfer. In this method, the nucleus of an egg cell taken from a donor is removed. This original cell is then fused with another cell of the same generic material which is supposed to be cloned. Another method in application is parthogenesis, which is only effective with male. In this method, unfertilized egg is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized (Dresser, 2003).

Pioneer cloning activities
The initial attempts at artificial cloning were commenced as early as the beginning of the twentieth century. The first successful cloning took place in 1952 when a tadpole was cloned. At first, clones were created from embryonic cells, this continued until the creation of Dolly, the first mammal cloned from the cell of an adult animal. This generated a lot of research interest in this area which led to the cloning of a number of large and small animals including sheep, goats, cows, mice, rabbits, and a gaur. In all these cases, nuclear transfer method was employed. Today, many cloned animals exist however, there is a limitation in terms of species. Cloning has never been possible in certain species. This can be attributed to the fact that some species are more resistant to somatic cell nuclear transfer than others. It is anticipated that improvement of cloning techniques will enable cloning of most species (Hopkins, 1998).
    The first cloning that was successful was reported by Advanced Cell Technologies (ACT) and is reported to have been carried out by extraction of DNA from the skin of a mans leg and then later inserted into a cows egg whose nucleus had been removed. The cloning is alleged to have occurred in November 1998.  The cloned embryo was allowed to develop for about twelve after which the experiment was stopped. Many other cloning experiments are alleged to have been carried out with the aim of getting stem cells from embryos. It is possible to harvest stem cells inside embryos within the first two weeks of their development and they can be developed into any type of cell in the human body. The stem cells differentiate into more specialized cells after two weeks of development (Laing, 2006).
Why human cloning should be illegalized.
    Human cloning is an expression of hubris. Cloning is seen as both an offence against God and also against nature. This is an offence against God in the sense that reproduction should only remain to be solely Gods domain. When we make it as our responsibility to create human through reproductive cloning, then we are acting as creators and thus infringing on the holy domain. From most religious literature, man is given the duty to take care of the rest of the creation. Creating human beings appear to be antagonistic to this view. Human cloning is thought of as an immoral and equally dangerous intrusion into Gods domain. Scientist have unfortunately found a way of avoiding criticism by claiming that research cloning is a useful and legitimate science and distinguishes it from reproductive cloning which they term as being dangerous. This should be known to us as just a plan to blindfold the people. Scientists do not believe that human cloning offend God, after all they say there is no scientific proof that God exists (Looney, 1994).
    Children who are begotten are gifts from God while human cloning treats children as manmade products who are designed with genetic order. This project by all aspects violates human dignity. From most religions, anything that undermines human dignity undermines the whole of humanity and even God. It is not easy to prove moral arguments as the existence of God cannot be proved scientifically. Parents who will have to engage their money and technology to have children will tend to value their children as products or commodities (Walters, 2004).
    Identical twins are considered to be naturally occurring clones but they tend to have very different personalities. This is even evident on Siamese twins. Thus, two people, conceived at the same moment, gestated in the same womb and raised in the same environment can be unique individuals. This is not the case with human clones who will be raised in a different era, habits, tastes and culture from their DNA donors. The differences of influences and experiences will lead to a difference in personality traits, habits, tastes and values. It is admissible that human clones are not copies that lack in individuality and autonomy. Since some people think of them otherwise, clones will suffer psychological damage. It is better that we illegalize cloning is bad before the time comes when a bigoted public cause mental torture and suffering to children who are not even supposed to exist in the first place (Walters, 2004).
    The efficiency of reproductive cloning is still very questionable as almost ninety percent of all cloning trials do not lead to viable offspring. The expense is also great and thus would remain to be a reserve of the chosen few. Cloned animals are susceptible to diseases and infections as their immune systems are considerably weak. The safety of human cloning still remains very questionable. Some of the reasons to support these arguments are among others, the possibility of epigenetic changes in the donor cells DNA which has the likelihood of not reversing in the course of cloning there may also be complications associated with paternal and maternal imprinting of the DNA in the clone. There may also be some damages in the DNA of the donor somatic cell and telomere length. There may also be some changes in the programming of the donor cells DNA. All these problems are not experienced in natural reproduction or to the other forms of assisted reproduction. There is a higher possibility that most adult clones will have abnormalities. It has been observed that cloned mammalian fetuses grow very large in the uterus this will most likely be very risky to the woman in the course of the gestation period and during birth. It is not clear why the fetuses grow so large but it is thought that it may be due to faults in nuclear reprogramming in the course of nuclear transfer (Snead, 2009).
    The cloned child may experience psychological harm by feeling that his fate has already been pre-determined and may not have the option of choosing their own identities. The other cause of psychological harm may be the unrealistic expectation that they will acquire particular qualities or resemblance to the genetic donor in some useful aspects. Human cloning comes with the possibility of complete control of reproduction and the childs precise genome. This will make parents place high expectations on their children which may in the long run turn out to be unrealistic. While expectations can be argued not to be unique to only the cloned children, parents who want cloned children will have an exact genetic make up, meaning that they will be expecting that from their child. Also, psychologically harmed will be the DNA donor, by knowing that there is another individual with the same genetic identity (Roy, 2003).
    The society will also be affected because parents will be encouraged to improve their offspring genetically uncertainty in family relations support of commodification and commercialization of progeny human diversity will be lost increase in population distributive bias and threat to the democracy of individuality and independence (Macintosh, 2005).